tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-72074900216109706222024-03-18T20:46:11.761-07:00Honest Book ReviewsIvan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.comBlogger41125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-46838336350914371412020-11-06T22:57:00.000-08:002020-11-06T22:57:59.842-08:00<h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">Psychoanalysis as a Replacement of Stimulants that are used as Treatment for ADHD</span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The purpose of this essay is to explore whether stimulant drugs should still be used to treat attention deficit disorder (ADD) in children. In addition, if the answer to the previous question is no, then what would be the best alternative form of treatment for children with ADD?</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Methylphenidate is the most common medication used to treat attention deficit with hyperactivity disorder (ADHD Treatment, n. d.). Since it is the most used stimulant, methylphenidate, also known as Ritalin, will be the drug that is going to be compared to therapy, specifically psychoanalysis. Its main mechanism of action is to increase dopamine in the central nervous system. The increased presence of dopamine will adumbrate the abuse potential of the drug, however, this will be discussed later.</span></div>
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<a href="http://ste.india.com/sites/default/files/2014/12/17/303774-cocaine.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="227" src="https://ste.india.com/sites/default/files/2014/12/17/303774-cocaine.jpg" width="400" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Cocaine and amphetamines have certain similarities and differences when compared to the main treatment for ADHD. A difference is that they have different mechanisms of action. For example, cocaine works by blocking dopamine transporters, therefore, blocking the reuptake process (How does cocaine produce its effects, n. d.). Amphetamines block the vesicle transporters. And because dopamine is unable to enter the vesicle, it ends up floating inside the terminal transporter. This leads to a reverse mechanism taking place in the reuptake process. Instead of returning dopamine to the terminal button, it ends up on the synaptic cleft, with a greater chance of binding. This occurs independently of an action potential (Calipari, E. S., & Ferris, M. J., 2013).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">A similitude is that cocaine and methylphenidate bind to the striatum, compete for the same receptors, and have on average the same affinity to said receptors (Volkow, et al., 1995). In terms of amphetamines, there is an agreement among researchers that they have the same pharmacological effects as methylphenidate (Hoffman B. B., & Lefkowitz R. J., 1996; McEvoy G. K. 1999). Moreover, Ritalin has some of the same effects as the two drugs of abuse mentioned before when the administration is intranasal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">This drug, which has some of the same pharmacological effects of drugs of abuse, starts to look more dangerous when we see the amount of prescriptions given to children. In the United States, there are at least six million people who are prescribed Ritalin for their ADHD. Moreover, the prescription of drugs to treat this disorder is increasing. This becomes alarming when we see that a drug that has a high potential for abuse is being prescribed to a large population, especially of children. In fact, reports have surfaced of people who abuse this drug (Jaffe S. L., 1991).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">To summarize, what it has been written in this research paper so far is that methylphenidate is a drug similar to cocaine and amphetamines because they increase dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. They have been prescribed to six million people in the U. S. and the majority of diagnosis start at childhood. There is also an increase in the prescription of this drug, independent of the diagnosis and reports of people who abuse this drug can already be seen, especially when mixed with other drugs of abuse such as alcohol or cocaine.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The therapy that will be put forward as a replacement for the treatment of attention deficit with hyperactivity disorder is psychoanalysis. It is commonly thought that Freud or his ideas either cannot be studied empirically or they have, but they have been disproven. Nevertheless, the opposite of said statement is correct. A study compared psychoanalysis, as well as cognitive behavioral therapy, with methylphenidate in regards to the treatment of ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (Laezer, 2015).</span></div>
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<a href="https://cdn.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/styles/image-article_inline_full/public/blogs/31836/2011/01/54292-44945.jpg?itok=txhqmY0W" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://cdn.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/styles/image-article_inline_full/public/blogs/31836/2011/01/54292-44945.jpg?itok=txhqmY0W" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">A common misconception is that psychoanalysis is a longer term treatment when compared to other options in the treatment of any disorder, however, the study found that the symptoms of ADHD were controlled first by psychoanalytic therapy, before the treatment with Ritalin or Methylphenidate ended. For the former, it was an average of 25.9 months in therapy. For the latter, it was 29.6 months in treatment. This an important fact since patients or users of the drug would usually develop either tolerance or sensitivity. In other words, psychoanalysis treats the symptoms of ADHD faster and patients don't run the risks of needing more drugs and thus experiencing more side effects or having long-term effects of their drugs. </span><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 48px; text-indent: 0.5in;">In addition, the study found that once psychoanalytic treatment was finished, patients reported the same level of impact in the symptoms when compared to the ones that were under the influence of the drug. This means that patients that had finished their psychoanalytic therapy had the same effects as those that still were in drug therapy. In fact, patients who were using Ritalin had to continue its use, but psychoanalytic therapy was a one-time deal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">In conclusion, methylphenidate is a drug that has the potential to be abused and has already been abused by those who have a history of drug usage. It is prescribed exponentially and has an impact in the late stages of childhood and adolescence, which are delicate stages in which our brain has greater plasticity. Moreover, psychoanalytic therapy is another tool that can be used in the treatment of ADHD for several reasons. The first one is that it does not have side effects and it cannot be abused like methylphenidate. Additionally, it works faster than the most prescribed stimulant. Moreover, once finished it still has the effects as those that were still using Ritalin. Finally, psychoanalysis also had positive medium and large effects with ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder without depending on treatment, because once the therapy ended the effects remained constant.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">References</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/child-and-adolescent-mental-health/antidepressant-medications-for-children-and-adolescents-information-for-parents-and-caregivers.shtml</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - Treatment. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/Pages/Treatment.aspx.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Calipari, E. S., & Ferris, M. J. (2013). Amphetamine Mechanisms and Actions at the Dopamine Terminal Revisited. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience</i>, <i>33</i>(21), 8923–8925. http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1033-13.2013 </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><i>Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5</i>. (2013). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Hoffman BB, & Lefkowitz RJ (1996). Catecholamines, sympathomimetic drugs, and adrenergic receptor antagonists. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB, et al, eds. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 221–224.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">How does cocaine produce its effects? (n.d.). Retrieved August 01, 2016, from https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/cocaine/how-does-cocaine-produce-its-effects.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Jaffe SL. (1991) Intranasal abuse of prescribed methylphenidate by an alcohol and drug abusing adolescent with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 30:773–775.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Katrin Luise Laezer (2015) Effectiveness of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy and Behavioral Therapy Treatment in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 14:2, 111-128, DOI: 10.1080/15289168.2015.1014991.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">McEvoy G. K. (1999). American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information. Bethesda, Md: American Society of Health-Systems Pharmacists. 2038–2040.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Ritalin and Cocaine: The Connection and the Controversy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/ritalin/</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Schizophrenia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia-booklet-12-2015/index.shtml#pub3</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Volkow ND, Ding YS, Fowler JS, et al. (1995) Is methylphenidate like cocaine? studies on their pharmacokinetics and distribution in the human brain. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 52:456–463.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Yuan, M., Frances,</span></div>
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-66497824044626173952020-11-02T04:43:00.007-08:002021-06-14T15:16:03.310-07:00Capitalism with a Humanist Interface: A leftist critique of UBI<p><b> Zizek, UBI, and the American election</b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1013" data-original-width="1011" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgICq8rvtg1-savD8fDB7pWB_yqnBgRc7stVNUCjpt7G7hf6N4Y6TLkXLhOYK6DehQG4x1Bzk9FlkSGo6zZ1eLGofx6K5jH-Lpses94ZYBcrQRU_-Nno205hxSL7cZ6ejEs_FfnDAFtADc/s320/Z.jpg" /></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">With the
upcoming American presidential election, it is increasingly evident how <i>change</i>,
as a concept,<i> </i>is interwoven in the political landscape. On one hand, to return
to the political environment of the pre-Trump era, voters can choose to elect
Vice President Joe Biden, but wasn’t this the exact climate that gave us Trump
in the first place? On the other hand, voters have the option to re-elect Donald
Trump, who needs no introduction to his list of defects. This can take us back
to Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek’s quip about Stalin: “back in the late
1920s, Stalin was asked by a journalist which deviation is worse, the Rightist
one (Bukharin & company) or the Leftist one (Trotsky & company), and he
snapped back: ‘They are both worse!’” Isn’t that the case with the options of
Trump or Biden? “They are both worse!”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">But if both are
worse, is there a “better” option? Just like the main character in the movie <i>The
Matrix</i>, we are given two choices: a blue pill, which can represent the
usual Democratic Party candidate and/or their liberal policies, and a red pill,
which does the same for a Republican Party candidate and/or their conservative
ideas. But, just like Zizek in his documentary <i>A Pervert’s Guide to Cinema</i>,
“I want a third pill.” The question then becomes who or what is that third pill,
especially for those who consider the red and blue pill as being essentially the
same option in different colors. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">When Senator Bernie
Sanders became the frontrunner in the Democratic Party primaries, he had been
proposing a series of policies that could potentially create a change by
working within the system: Medicare for All, Housing for All, College for All,
etc. However, the establishment of both parties did and continues to do, everything
possible to preserve the status quo, which included deterring him from securing
the presidential nomination. In other words, the establishment must change the
system to maintain it. For example, when Biden was asked after the
pandemic had started, what he would do if the House passed a version of
Medicare for All, he responded by saying that he would veto it. Not
surprisingly, when Biden won Super Tuesday, which led to him securing the
nomination of the democratic party, healthcare stocks went up. Or recall when
the Democratic presidential candidates were asked whether the candidate with most
votes, but not a plurality, should become the nominee and all candidates except
Bernie said “no.” Again, changing the system to preserve the status quo. On the
other side of the same coin is Trump, who is trying to get rid of the
Affordable Care Act while the U. S. keeps breaking record numbers of daily COVID-19
cases. In other words, one candidate would actively stop progress while the
other one has been actively trying to revert it. All of this is happening while
most Americans support progressive policies (Medicare for All, College for All,
boosting the minimum wage, paid maternity leave, government-funded childcare,
etc.). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Here we
encounter the paradox of <i>change</i>. It becomes evident that two options can impact our system due to its unstable politico-economical structure. Agents
can either actively engage with the system to maintain it or not change it to transform it. For another example, recall how Speaker of the House
Nancy Pelosi didn’t want people in Congress to endorse primary challengers
against incumbent House Democrats. In fact, the Democratic Congressional
Campaign Committee stated that the political strategists and vendors that
supported said candidates would be cut off from the party. However, when Rep.
Joe Kennedy ran against Sen. Ed Markey, Pelosi broke her own rule and endorsed
Kennedy, who represents the Democratic establishment over his more progressive
opponent, while citing that her family and herself had worked with different
generations of the Kennedys as the reason for doing so. Again, actively
engaging the system to retain it. Otherwise, there would be a gradual erosion induced
by its structural imbalance if left alone. Specifically, one of the pillars of
this unsustainability is our current economic system, which facilitates these
changes or the lack thereof. Currently, as a reaction of the establishment in a
panic, policies keep being proposed and enacted that extend its lifetime. But
before delving into the policies that prolong its collapse, we should explore
what makes it unable to stand the test of time.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Multiple characteristics define this unsustainability. One of them is that
capitalism always pushes towards unskilled labor. Since employers want to increase
their profits, they can either increase the price of a product or decrease the
cost of manufacturing said product. The former is not always a viable option
since consumers may not be willing to pay more for a product when there’s an option
to purchase a similar and cheaper one. Instead, employers have attempted
different ways to attach additional charges to the main product such as
offering the option of accessories that are to be used in combination with it. For
example, in the videogame industry, new physical copies are typically available
for $60, but to increase revenue, publishers offer the option of additional content
that gets charged as paid DLC, microtransactions, collector’s editions, season
passes, etc. This at first might seem fair, but a common practice between
publishers is to remove some of the original content of the game and sell it
separately after its release date. Or recall similar avaricious practices
conducted by <i>EA</i>, a videogame publishing company, when they introduced
advertisements into the videogame <i>UFC 4</i> after the game was released,
which were removed following an outcry from its player base. Similarly, the
game <i>NBA 2K21</i> introduced unskippable ads one month later after its
release (when reviews have been published). After an outcry from its community,
the publishing company reported that it was a mistake and that they will place
them on different sections of the game in future installations. As it becomes
evident, this might not be the most cost-effective strategy. Employers then have,
as mentioned before, the option to cut the cost of production, which is usually
done by underpaying workers. The first time this culture was made public in the
videogame industry was in 2004. An anonymous author, known as <i>EA Spouse,</i>
wrote a post detailing how workers at <i>EA</i>, who became the first company
to consecutively be awarded Consumerist’s poll <i>Worst Company in America,</i>
were not being paid for their overtime work. This letter eventually led to a $14.9
million settlement to programmers for overdue overtime. Another letter
published in 2010 by a different spouse, detailed the same type of work culture
at the publishing company <i>Rockstar</i>. This letter also led to a
class-action suit where the publisher settled for $2.75 million with over 100
ex-employees due to unpaid overtime too. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Evidently, this second
option of crunch culture also leads to companies bleeding money due to illegally
cutting costs. This drives employers to look for appropriate ways, in the eyes
of the law, to reduce production costs. One way to do this is to replace
skilled labor with unskilled labor and unskilled labor with automation. Let’s look
at the food industry as an example. In the food documentary <i>Ugly Delicious,</i>
Chef David Chang visited the pizza chain <i>Domino’s</i> to observe how they
operate after he discussed with other chefs the differences between traditional
cooking methods and the incorporation of technology into cooking. After seeing Domino’s
cooking process (e.g. a tracking app takes into account the information of an
order, it calculates the time left depending on the oven setting, and once it
is dispatched, it can calculate how long it took to leave), he comments that it’s
obvious how it’s “years and years of a lot of people’s efforts to make it as
streamlined as possible.” Chang comments at the end of the scene that <i>Domino’s</i>
is no longer a food chain, but rather a technology company.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Technology has always
been creeping into the workplace. There was a time when most cooks had to know
how long to cook ingredients for them to be ready, and cashiers needed to be
able to perform mental calculations. Now, cooks wait for a cue in the form of a light
or a sound to know when the food is ready to be flipped, and cashiers have a
machine that does basic arithmetic for them. An example of this is how McDonald’s
now includes screens next to its cashiers as an option for people to order by
themselves. This sort of automation saves companies money for three main reasons.
The first reason is that they can produce the same product for less money due
to three causes. The first one is that machines replace workers since the
purchasing and maintenance of machinery costs less than their training and employment.
The second cause is that the work becomes unskilled labor, which is cheaper
than skilled labor. The last cause is that employers need fewer employees than
before to create the same product. Returning to the reasons why automation increases
profits for companies, the second reason is the conversion of employees into an unskilled labor force. This means that they are easily replaced due to employers having
access to a larger pool of possible employees and lacking the need to train new
hires. Thus, if a group of cashiers goes on a strike because they wish the
minimum wage was raised, their employer can fire them and replace them through
a fast and inexpensive process since it is unskilled labor. The third reason is
that whoever has the means of production has the power. For example, in
California, a group of graduate students from the University of California went
on strike for higher wages. The students, who did not hold the means of
production, were fired from their teaching assistant positions even though they’re
from a part of the skilled workforce. With automation, employers hold securely the
means of production because the employee is no longer manufacturing the
product, but rather machinery owned by the employer. All of this makes it
evident how we are moving to a point where employers are systematically replacing
skilled workers with unskilled ones and those for automation. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">This has
increased dramatically the rate of unemployment, which creates a problem for
the capitalists. True, the capitalists can increase profit margins by paying
less for labor while getting the same product, but an increase in unemployment
means that there are fewer consumers able to buy their product. What capitalists
need are consumers and with the rate of unemployment increasing, they lack this
fundamental group to continue “earning” money. This is where we reintroduce the
paradox of change (changing things so they remain the same). On the
conservative side, you have people like Fox News host Tucker Carlson, who
advocated for restrictions on A. I. with the ability to drive cars, in a
conversation with conservative political commentator Ben Shapiro for two
reasons. The first one is that wages for truck drivers are going down. The
second reason is that with self-driving cars, those jobs would disappear, which
would be devastating to the working class since truck driving is the most
common job held by men with only a high school diploma in the United States. Here
it is exemplified two of the reasons described before why automation increases
profit margins for employers. And with this discourse, we return to the idea of
stopping progress to maintain the system by actively changing it (e. g.
restricting developing technology in the form of A. I. to leave unaffected the
working class represented by truck drivers through action shown as new
policies). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">On the other
side of the same coin is the idea of Universal Basic Income (UBI), which at
first appears to be a light at the end of a tunnel in this series of economic
problems. However, the underlying reality is that the light is from an oncoming
train. UBI is similar to other policies that delay the collapse of capitalism while
simultaneously driving us deeper into the system that created the problems in
the first place. UBI, who entrepreneur Andrew Yang calls the <i>Freedom
dividend</i>, consists of providing a monthly payment to citizens. In Yang’s plan,
Americans would receive monthly checks of $1,000. As mentioned before, this appears
to give power to the working class. One reason why UBI is advocated for is that
individuals have more freedom and flexibility to pursue more non-lucrative jobs
that they were interested in by receiving economic help. However, this is
nothing more than ideology and for Zizek, explaining this starts with a cup of <i>Starbucks</i>
coffee. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">There’s guilt
attached in transactions under capitalism since workers have to be exploited.
This is what the phrase <i>there’s no ethical consumption under capitalism</i> refers
to. For example, customers could ask themselves why they engage in purchasing a
product, or in this case a coffee, when the money could be spent in a more
moral/ethical way. Capitalism, however, found a solution to alleviate this guilt.
Ingeniously, capitalists have attached an idea to the product. In terms of the previous
example, this would be ethical conduct. Could the coffee at <i>Starbucks</i>
be cheaper? Yes, but now every time someone purchases it, a donation is made to remove the guilt. An example of this is their <i>One Tree for One Bag</i>
initiative, which ensures that a tree is planted for every sold coffee bag. Of course, <i>Starbucks</i> is not very vocal about the fact that the trees
that are planted are coffee trees, which expands their business and reduces
costs. But even if the company did, the purpose of the act is to benefit the
company. Ideology masquerades from people how the world functions while
simultaneously shapes how people interact with it. Recall one of the episodes in
The Simpsons when Bart falls in a well and, instead of truly helping him,
celebrities engage in symbolic behavior by singing a song for him. Isn’t this
similar to what happened during the pandemic when model and actress Gal Gadot
gathered an array of celebrities to singalong to <i>Imagine</i>? The emptiness
of the gesture is noticeable with the joke made by stand-up comedian Tom Segura
in a podcast with Joe Rogan when he said, “I lost my job at the meatpacking
plant but Gal Gadot sang <i>Imagine</i>.” Or recall when celebrities uploaded a
video of themselves urging citizens to vote while being naked. This is what
ideology is.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another similar act is philanthropy. It appears
like it benefits people, specifically the working class when in reality it
only helps the donor due to them receiving tax breaks. It is true that Jeff
Bezos has donated to charity, but the need for these charities is caused by the
system that made him able to accumulate wealth in the first place. For example,
by underpaying workers, he can have enough money to donate to a fund that aids
in paying school tuition for kids whose families cannot afford it due to being
underpaid in the workplace. Additionally, in Arizona during 2017, one in three <i>Amazon</i>
employees was receiving food stamps. All of these “socially conscious” billionaires
donate not because they have an interest in helping people, but rather because
they want the economic benefit of appearing to help. Even if they had the
intention of helping, this would be irrelevant since real help would not increase economic
inequality. Again, we return to the topic of ideology and the interest of the
capitalists in engaging in symbolic gestures. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Another example
of this is Elon Musk who, even though constantly warns of the threat new
technologies pose to human dignity and freedom, has invested in <i>Neuralink</i>,
a company that is exploring the idea of implanting devices in the human brain
to merge human beings with software. Or consider the article Forbes
wrote regarding him pledging to donate half of his fortune to charity (Forbes
did not count two donor-advised funds with tens of millions of dollars “because
these funds are a bit like philanthropic bank accounts, without any requirement
for annual distributions to charities nor any requirement to publicly disclose
when grants are made”) while simultaneously creating a rocket that can
deliver weapons anywhere in the world within the hour. War, which he appears to
favor (recall his tweet “we will coup whoever we want” regarding Bolivia’s coup),
tends to be one of the causes that necessitate these charities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">This description
of ideology also applies to UBI. It appears to aid people but is in fact worsening
what it’s trying to solve. At first glance, this is not apparent. Especially
considering the differences between providing something non-material (celebrities
singing a song) and something material (economic resources). But the reason why
this is so is beautifully illustrated in the anecdote of Catherine the Great.
When she was “informed that her servants were stealing wine and food behind her
back, even going so far as to mock her, she just smiled, aware that occasionally
dropping crumbs of enjoyment for them kept them in their position as servants.”
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The purpose of this
critique of UBI must not be misunderstood as a liberal one. It’s not making a
reference to the number of crumbs being too small and advocating for a constant
(monthly) larger ($1000) number of crumbs (This bread metaphor can make a
reference to the metonymic phrase “bread and circuses” by the Roman poet Juvenal, which
talks about the people need in order not to revolt). A liberal critique would point
out the fact that government aid would be replaced by UBI. This means that individuals
who receive food stamps would not receive the paycheck in its totality. In fact,
they might not see an extra cent from UBI, which contradicts its original
purpose of helping working-class individuals. All of this would happen while the
class of people who don’t need it, the millionaires and billionaires, would
receive it intact. Instead of liberal critique, a leftist one will be made,
which would be that workers would now be even farther away from the means of
production. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>One
of the reasons why Yang proposed UBI was because of the problem of automation,
which as mentioned before increases the amount of wealth creation while simultaneously
preventing most people from receiving the benefits of this wealth. The conservative
solutions have already been discussed, which include the prevention of progress
or the return to a system before said development. The blue establishment’s
proposal includes UBI, which has only been analyzed in terms of ideology, but not
in the context of automation. As mentioned before whoever holds the means of
production holds the power. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">If unfair or
unethical events occur in the workplace, workers would no longer possess the
ability to strike. If structural unemployment increases due to automation where
would the money come from to fund UBI? The answer is from the bourgeoisie. In
fact, Yang proposed a VAT tax to aid in funding UBI. This already starts
painting a picture as the big businesses playing an even bigger role in the economy
in terms of them increasing their profits. Employers would no longer have to
pay for employees’ salaries, insurance, retirement plans, etc. Instead, employers
would just have to provide a small portion of those profits to be distributed
to the working class so they can afford to buy their products again. This makes
it glaringly obvious why rich businessmen like Bill Gates, etc. support this
program. Yang cites in his book Gates saying, “A problem of excess [automation]
forces us to look at the individuals affected and take those extra resources
and make sure they’re directed to them in terms of re-education and income
policies.” He also cited Elon Musk saying “I think we’ll end up doing universal
basic income… It’s going to be necessary… There will be fewer and fewer jobs
that a robot cannot do better.” And Mark Zuckerberg saying, “We should explore…
universal basic income so that everyone has a cushion to try new ideas.” These
comments emphasize the desire of the upper class to preserve the status quo. Yang
continues by saying “you know what’s really expensive? ... Revolution.” Again,
these comments can return us to the anecdote of Catherine the Great of keeping the
people who are getting crumbs in their position.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Now, we return to
the original question. What is the better solution? What is that third pill? It
would be a radical critique of the democratic establishment. People have
increasingly become not just temporarily unemployed, but structurally
unemployed and automation has exacerbated the effects of capitalism. These
problems won’t be solved by voting for Biden and obviously not by Trump either.
The former is not only one of the precursors of the current state of affairs but one of the reasons why Trump is in the oval office too. If voters choose to
return to the pre-Trump era, they will not only return to a place where
symbolic gestures are celebrated while the working class reaps none of the
benefits (ideology), but we might get a worse Trump. A Trump that is eloquent,
that is politically correct, a Trump that, in the same vein as Biden, fucks the
proletariat, but is celebrated as a compassionate and well-mannered commander
in chief. We might get a competent Trump.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">The ending of
this essay received several revisions. One of the drafts emphasized the need
for praxis. It encouraged voters to not settle for Biden and to vote for policies
that the voters wanted (recall that said policies fell in the progressive side
of the political aisle). It shared some information from third-party candidates
and encouraged voters to look up sample ballots in their state so they could
also participate in their local elections. It remarked that it wasn’t an
accident that they ended up with the same two candidates that they always do.
These two options are a consequence of the establishment. Similarly to how the
DNC advocates for Biden because another Trump administration will be catastrophic,
the establishment argued in the French elections that the best option should be
Macron while emphasizing that a Le Pen election with its right-wing policies would
be a catastrophe for France. In addition, it showed evidence of a pattern of
the DCN manipulating the elections so the establishment could secure the
presidential nomination. So, praxis is necessary, but valueless without good
theory to support it. In a conversation with a close friend, he mentioned
supporting Biden because he was going to enact progressive policies,
specifically Medicare for All. And even though in the last debate with Trump,
Biden stated that the idea that he supported that program was “ridiculous” my
friend still supported Biden. He was engaging in what he thought would have the
most beneficial consequences, just like Gal Gadot singing imagine, just like Zuckerberg
advocating for UBI, just like the rich donating to charities, just like the Catholic
church when it hid the cases of sexual assaults, attacked the victims in court,
and advocated against a bill that could increase the statute of limitations for
rape charges while simultaneously creating support groups for the victims. Attempting
to help while participating in the system that necessitates said help. A
radical critique of the Democratic establishment doesn’t start by praxis, it starts
by having supporting theory. The usual motto of “don’t think, act” has gotten
us in trouble before because we support policies like UBI, which might seem
helpful at first, but they just end up being hurtful. In this case, the phrase
would be “don’t act, think.” <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: medium;">Yang is right
with his observations that attempt to identify the problems that are caused by
automation, but these are only problems under the current system. An MIT study
found that for simple mechanical tasks a reward improves performance and a
better reward made the outcome even better. However, the results were not
similar on cognitive tasks. It seems like the best use of money as a motivator
is to pay people enough to remove money off the table. Capitalism with automation
creates larger profits for whoever holds the means of production. That is not
the problem. The problem is how the money is distributed. When Marxist
Professor in economics was a guest show in Fox’s Stuart Varney show, he
mentioned a possible solution for the problem of automation, which was making
the workplace a democratic setting. If workers, owning the means of production,
divided the profits two things would happen. The first one would be that the
money would not be distributed unequally. The second one would be that once
automation enters the workplace, instead of wondering who they had to let go,
the conversation would be centered around the idea that now they wouldn’t have
to work the same amount of hours to get paid the same amount of money. A normal
working week might be reduced to fewer days or maybe fewer hours per day. But
again, this would be not a <i>change</i> within the system, but a <i>change</i>
of the system. Otherwise, employees would be at the mercy of the big companies
like they are now. This makes it evident why the current system is in itself
unsustainable. Yang proposed an idea to delay its fall, by providing money to the
displaced workers. But, quoting again Zizek one last time, “should we take the
humanitarian side and take care of those behind or should we tackle the most
difficult task of changing the system that generates them?” In other words,
Yang might have been telling the truth, although not as intended when he
opened his book by writing “I am writing … to let you know we are coming for
your jobs.”</span><o:p></o:p></p>Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-72474411274478412632020-03-03T00:39:00.000-08:002020-03-03T00:59:41.345-08:00Why Psychoanalysts should endorse/vote for Bernie Sanders<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="Bernie Sanders Has a Plan to Tax the Rich That’s About As ..." height="403" src="https://external-content.duckduckgo.com/iu/?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F02%2Fbernie-sanders-2018-ap.jpg%3Fscale%3D896%26compress%3D80&f=1&nofb=1" width="640" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large; text-align: justify;">The psychoanalysts’ couch has gone out of favor for more short forms of
treatment. With the upcoming primaries in the Democratic Party in the U. S., it
is important to not only look at how each candidate's policies would affect the
health care industry, but the practice of psychoanalysts as a whole. This leads
us to the premise of this essay, which is that Medicare for All is beneficial
for psychoanalysis. A couple of questions arise that will be each answered in a
small section. For the voter unfamiliar with the field, the question is
whether psychoanalysis is effective. For the voter unfamiliar with how
insurance companies operate, the question is on what grounds insurance
companies cover short vs long-term treatments. And finally, for the non-Bernie
supporter, the question is how Medicare for All could be payed and how it would
affect psychoanalysis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Is Psychoanalysis
effective? - The symptoms<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Not only in popular
culture did the conversation shift from “who is your psychoanalyst?” to “what kind
of medication do you take or what’s your dose?” but it also occurred at the
clinic. The common misconceptions are that psychoanalysis cannot be falsified
and, thus, evidence-based treatments are preferred. Or that they can be tested,
but psychoanalysis is not as effective as other forms of treatment. Both misconceptions
can be addressed by a simple google search. For example, one meta-analysis found
that cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), pharmacotherapy, and psychodynamic
therapy are equally efficacious (1). In fact, Jonathan Shedler found that the
effect sizes of psychodynamic therapy were as large as “empirically supported
and evidence-based treatments” (2). But if psychodynamic therapy is as
effective as evidence-based treatments and there is no difference in outcome
between manualized and non-manualized treatments (3), why did psychoanalysis
fall out of favor?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Insurance companies’
coverage of treatments – The diagnosis<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">There is a joke about
the American mental health care system that goes “if you feel like you need
help, look for a therapist that is covered by your insurance. They won’t be. If
they are, check whether they have any appointment available. They won’t. If
they do, after a couple months of waiting, just pay the $300 co-payment.” <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">This points out that one
of the biggest limiting factors in receiving health treatments is the accessibility
of treatments. In the first four states of the Democratic presidential contest
so far, there has been a majority of support among voters that preferred to “replace
all private insurance with a single government plan for all Americans” (4). Why?
Voters are aware of several things. One of them is the lack of insurance coverage
for much needed treatment. For example, United Healthcare lost a case in March
2019 for being unreasonable and using overly restrictive guidelines that denied
coverage, including children, of residential and outpatient treatment from 2011
to 2017 (5). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">The lack of coverage of
needed treatments is a big concern. Especially when considering that is harder
to get coverage for long-term treatments. The effectiveness of short-term psychodynamic
therapy was covered in the last section, but is important to examine the
effects of long-term therapy too. According to a study conducted in 2018, psychoanalytic
and cognitive-behavioral long-term therapy is more effective at treating
chronic depression (6). The decision of the United Healthcare lawsuit was
applauded by the American Psychoanalytic Association. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Is the problem
insurance companies/our current health care system? Absolutely. Not only during
this period was United Healthcare refusing to cover patients to save money, but,
according to another lawsuit the company was overbilling Medicare by hundreds
of millions of dollars a year, stopped a repayment plan on 2014 to meet Wallstreet’s
revenue expectations, and reported unhealthier patients to receive $3 billion
worth during 2010 to 2015 alone (7).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Medicare for all –
The treatment<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Who gets the worst
part of the deal? The patient; the public. However, the biggest concern of
voters before jumping on board of the Medicare for All train revolves around
the price tage. Three common misconceptions are that we don’t know how much it
is going to be, that it is going to be too expensive, and that we won’t be able
to pay for it. Bernie’s plan to be able to pay for Medicare for All is
explicitly laid out on his website, which we will cover from directly (8).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the beginning of the section, a study from Yale
University is cited that found that Bernie’s Medicare for All bill would save
over $450 billion in health care costs and prevent 68,000 unnecessary deaths
per year. Our current system will cost approximately $52 trillion over the next
ten years. According to the Yale study as well as others, Medicare for All
would save around $5 trillion. That is a projected cost of $52 trillion minus
the savings of $5 trillion equals $47 trillion total. Our current federal,
state and local government spending over the next ten years is projected to
total about $30 trillion. The revenue options Bernie has proposed total $17.5
Trillion. In other words, $30 trillion of total projected spending + $17.5
trillion of new proposals = $47.5 Trillion total needed to pay for Medicare for
All. Since 2016, Bernie has proposed a menu of financing options that would
more than pay for the Medicare for All legislation he has introduced according
to the Yale study. These options include:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
</div>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Creating a
4 percent income-based premium paid by employees, exempting the first $29,000
in income for a family of four.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 2018, the typical
working family paid an average of $6,015 in premiums to private health
insurance companies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under this option,
a typical family of four earning $60,000, would pay a 4 percent income-based
premium to fund Medicare for All on income above $29,000 – just $1,240 a year –
saving that family $4,775 a year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Families of four making less than $29,000 a year would not pay this
premium.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide about
$4 trillion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Imposing a
7.5 percent income-based premium paid by employers, exempting the first $1
million in payroll to protect small businesses.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 2018, employers
paid an average of $14,561 in private health insurance premiums for a worker
with a family of four. Under this option, employers would pay a 7.5 percent
payroll tax to help finance Medicare for All – just $4,500 – a savings of more
than $10,000 a year.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide over
$5.2 trillion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Eliminating
health tax expenditures, which would no longer be needed under Medicare for
All.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide about
$3 trillion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Raising
the top marginal income tax rate to 52% on income over $10 million.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide about
$700 billion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Replacing
the cap on the state and local tax deduction with an overall dollar cap of
$50,000 for a married couple on all itemized deductions.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide about
$400 billion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
</div>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Taxing
capital gains at the same rates as income from wages and cracking down on
gaming through derivatives, like-kind exchanges, and the zero tax rate on
capital gains passed on through bequests.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide about
$2.5 trillion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Enacting
the For the 99.8% Act, which returns the estate tax exemption to the 2009 level
of $3.5 million, closes egregious loopholes, and increases rates progressively
including by adding a top tax rate of 77% on estate values in excess of $1
billion.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide
$336 billion in revenue over 10 years.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Enacting
corporate tax reform including restoring the top federal corporate income tax
rate to 35 percent.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This would provide $3
trillion in revenue, of which $1 trillion would be used to help finance
Medicare for All and $2 trillion would be used for the Green New Deal.)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<ul>
<li><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Using $350
billion of the amount raised from the tax on extreme wealth to help finance
Medicare for All.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">This means that not only
the Medicare for All bill makes long-term treatments such as psychoanalysis
more economically accessible, but its ease of access would impact a larger
portion of the population. The only thing left to do is for psychoanalysts to
endorse/vote for Bernie Sanders.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17010057">https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17010057</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES-MX"><a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2010-02208-012"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2010-02208-012</span></a></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES-MX"><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jclp.22712?casa_token=VZfITc1vEHAAAAAA:06M1ExbiktW8HsQj2A4srJqPVFRZBbutwzh2_reXDYUuM95hHWU6tEJx06x8uhmQpRxAQ63iC2EgyQ"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jclp.22712?casa_token=VZfITc1vEHAAAAAA:06M1ExbiktW8HsQj2A4srJqPVFRZBbutwzh2_reXDYUuM95hHWU6tEJx06x8uhmQpRxAQ63iC2EgyQ</span></a></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020-election/live-blog/south-carolina-primary-live-updates-democrats-vote-2020-candidates-n1145296/ncrd1146056#liveBlogHeader">https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020-election/live-blog/south-carolina-primary-live-updates-democrats-vote-2020-candidates-n1145296/ncrd1146056#liveBlogHeader</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES-MX"><a href="https://www.modernhealthcare.com/law-regulation/united-loses-court-behavioral-health-coverage-rules"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">https://www.modernhealthcare.com/law-regulation/united-loses-court-behavioral-health-coverage-rules</span></a></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES-MX"><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0706743718780340"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0706743718780340</span></a></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES-MX"><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/business/dealbook/unitedhealth-sued-medicare-overbilling.html"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/business/dealbook/unitedhealth-sued-medicare-overbilling.html</span></a></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES-MX"><a href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/how-does-bernie-pay-his-major-plans/"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">https://berniesanders.com/issues/how-does-bernie-pay-his-major-plans/</span></a></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-44112275188878134892020-01-13T01:10:00.000-08:002020-01-13T01:10:42.693-08:00Batman Begins [With the Development of his Superego] <h2>
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">Movies and Psychoanalysis</span></h2>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">(This analysis is
based on one version of the script, which is slightly different from the movie,
and the film itself).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Psychoanalysis can,
sometimes, be seen as a great tool used in a variety of fields. For individuals
unfamiliar with its purpose and methods, psychoanalysis tends to be recognized
as a form of therapy that deals with dream interpretation. However,
psychoanalysis can be so much more and this is evident in the range of book
titles that use it as a means of investigation (i. e. <i>Psychoanalysis and
feminism</i>, <i>Psychoanalysis and religion</i>, <i>Psychoanalysis and art</i>,
etc.). This plethora of combinations leads us to question the purpose of
psychoanalysis. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Well, the Chair of
Neuropsychology at the University of Cape Town and the President of the South
African Psychoanalytical Association, Mark Solms, hits the nail on the head
with his answer. He stated during an interview, "I think what
psychoanalysis does ... is so easily overcomplicated... at the heart of the
matter ... is to enable a patient to face the facts of their life" (1). In
other words, it aids with the search for truth, which is why it pairs so well
with other fields. With the lenses of psychoanalysis, it is possible to look at
other fields such as literature, history, politics, or in this case, cinema. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this series, "Movies
and Psychoanalysis," psychoanalysis will be used to explore films and what
they can tell us about the human experience. Freud, the founder of
psychoanalysis, argued that there are constant unconscious expressions that manifest
in different ways, such as slips of the tongue, forgetting names, dreams, etc.,
which can reveal the mechanisms of our mental apparatus. He stated, "He
that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can
keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips;
betrayal oozes out of him at every pore.” This makes it obvious why the
analyses of texts have been used to understand the human mind. It is because
they are expressions of the authors that, when analyzed carefully, tell us
about the human experience. And now we are about to do the same, but with films
instead. In this post, we will use the movie, "Batman Begins," in
order to understand the development of the Superego.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to begin the
analysis, we have to cover some basic terminology. Freud's tripartite model of
the mind consists of three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The
first structure functions under the pleasure principle and it is the only part,
in this model of the mind, that is innate. In other words, the moment
individuals are born, they start seeking things that create pleasure, which
tend to be beneficial to a certain extent. For example, babies cry when they
want to be fed, when they want to be carried, when they are too cold or too
hot, when they are scared, etc. In order to satisfy these desires, parents
provide what creates pleasure in the babies. If this is analyzed with
attention, it appears as if all of these attributes have an evolutionary
advantage. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second structure, the
ego, works under the reality principle. This means that this layer of the mind
is trying to satisfy the desires of the id, but it takes into account the
external world. The superego is in charge of reminding the ego the rules that
should not be broken. They can be political, religious, moral, etc. For
example, if we would observe a kid, without a developed superego, that finds a
cookie that belongs to someone else, he would instantly eat it. However, since
he did not ask for it, he could be reprimanded. Additionally, a kid that has
both his ego and his id developed would enter into a mental conflict. The id
wants to eat it immediately, but the ego knows the person could get caught, so
what might happen is that the kid might grab the cookie and hide it when nobody
is looking in order to eat it later. If this happens, it would mean that the
desire of the id was fulfilled, but in the journey of satisfying this wish, the
ego took into account the aspect of reality in order not to be reprimanded.
Finally, an individual with all three structures fully developed would ask for
the cookie because the id's drive would be to seek to eat it, the ego knows he
cannot eat it immediately, and the superego knows that stealing is not morally
right. In other words, the ego decides what course of action to take based on
the rules of the superego in order to satisfy the desire of the id. Obviously,
there are caveats and Freud's meta-psychology is much more complex, but for the
sake of simplicity, let us accept this model as is and continue.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now, there is another concept
that should be covered and this is the Oedipus complex. Freud asserted that
male children made their mom their first love interest while being jealous of
the father since they attract the attention of the mother. He named it after
the play, "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles. In this play, a King receives a
prophecy that his child was going to kill him and marry his wife. Long story
short, his son unknowingly fulfills the prophecy and when he discovers what he
has done he takes his eyes out. Freud didn't include the latter in the complex.
Instead, he added that children come to an age when they discover that males
have penises and females don't. Moreover, since they have a negative attitude
towards their father because of their jealousy, they think that their father is
the one that castrates female children. Therefore, male children go through
something called castration complex, which is when they fear that their father
might chop their genitals. The moment they understand this is not going to
happen, they have solved the Oedipus complex in one way. In the end, the love
for their mom is transferred to someone else, they become friends with their
dad and learn from him what should and should not be done. This is when the
superego is developed. This solution is the most common one, but not the only
one; there are different ways in which the Oedipus complex can be solved.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Movie Analysis<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We are
introduced to the characters when they are kids. Bruce Wayne, the main
character, is shown the head of an arrow by his best friend Rachel. He then
steals it, making it evident that he doesn’t have a developed superego yet.
This also suggests the point of the Oedipus complex in which he is in.
Currently, he is attracted to his mother and competes for her attention with
his father. This stage is represented metaphorically in the next scene where
Bruce falls into a yonic symbol, a well, that can represent Bruce’s unconscious
falling for his mom. Additionally, his father coming into the well to carry him
out and blocking the entrance suggests that he shouldn’t be there and blocks
future attempts of doing it again. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">After we are introduced to the characters from the movie, the scene
takes the viewer into the present where Bruce still does not have a fully
formed superego. In a parallel to the previous scene in his childhood, Bruce is
in jail for stealing, which reinforces the idea of an undeveloped superego. Later,
Bruce is placed in solitary where he meets Ra's Al Ghul, who will be an unintentional
attempt at becoming the substitute of Bruce's father. Once, Ra’s Al Ghul starts
to spew his ideological point of view, the script literally states that Wayne
doesn’t do anything else besides nod and accept what he is saying. Thus,
suggesting that this is when Bruce's identification and acceptance of a
father's figure ideology starts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the next scene, Wayne is asked, “What
do you fear?” This is when we will introduce two new Freudian concepts, which
are the phallic and yonic symbols. The signified of the former is a penis and
of the latter a vagina. The phallic symbol is represented by any object whose
length exceeds its diameter, and the yonic symbols by any concave object. Then,
the sex act can be represented by the phallic symbol entering the yonic one. An
example of this would be a train entering a tunnel. The proposed claimed would
be that the bats in this movie are phallic symbols and the cave a yonic one. To
be more precise, the bat represents Bruce’s genitals and the cave his mother’s
genitals. This is when we back to that scene where Bruce is asked the question
of what he fears, which is when we see one of his memories. This is when he
enters by accident the cave. The entrance to the cave was blocked (a symbol
representing that he wasn’t supposed to be there; a forbidden entryway), which
could mean that the fear of bats and of entering the cave was only a repressed
and distorted thought of the realization that he had a sexual attraction
towards his mother (making a reference to the Oedipus complex). Like mentioned
before, the father is seen as competition for the mother and the goal of said
competition would be to enter the “cave.” Once Bruce is inside the cave, we see
his father descending into it as another phallic symbol, because of the rope
used, that comes with the sole purpose of removing his son from there. After
taking Bruce out, he blocks the entrance again and tells Bruce not to go in
there again. We can also listen to some of the teachings that would aid in the
development of his superego: “Why do we fall, Bruce? So, we can pick ourselves
up.” In the movie, this line is given by the father. However, in an earlier
version of the script, this line is not given by Thomas, but by who would
ultimately become his father figure, Alfred. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the movie starts, Bruce
Wayne is at the late stage of the Oedipus complex. The attention is not on the
mother, but rather on the father. The attention placed on the father and not on
the mother can be seen by the number of times their names are mentioned in the
script. Martha's name is in the script eleven times and she only speaks twice.
In fact, even when she addresses Bruce, he doesn't answer back. On the other
hand, Thomas' name is in the script 49 times and he speaks 18 times. And, again,
the conversations he has with his son corresponds to what Freud described would
help form his sense of morality. For example, Thomas tells his son "Your
great-grandfather built the first trains in Gotham. The city’s been good to our
family- it was time to give something back...". In this example, he is
telling him that it is important to give things back, to help others. Moreover,
we later see another phallic symbol, which is the Wayne Tower. In the script,
there is a scene, which was not included in the movie, that states that Thomas
drew a circle on the window, signaling the city, then in the middle a dot that
represents the tower (a phallic symbol in the center of a yonic one). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Let’s introduce one more concept, that of
displacing the feeling towards a subject/object into another subject/object. In
this case, I’m arguing that the city of Gotham represents Bruce’s mother and
that he has engaged in the mechanism mentioned above. After Bruce’s parents are
killed, characters refer to Gotham as if it was almost a person. The first time,
it occurs after the murder, when Ra’s Al Ghul states that the city is beyond
saving and must be allowed to die. This could be interpreted as if he was
alluding to the death of his parents. In other words, forget them, what they
taught you, and move on (especially since Bruce’s father and Ra’s Al Ghul
morality and ideology conflict with each other). The next time the city is
alluded as Bruce’s mother is when Ra’s Al Ghul asks “can Gotham be saved, or is
<i>she</i> an ailing <i>ancestor</i> whose time has run?” Another clue hinting
at Bruce’s displacement is that instead of using the pronoun “it” (e.g."is
'it' an ailing ancestor..."), the female pronoun “she” is used instead.
Thus, referring to it, both, as a person and as a woman. It’s important to note
that in almost every conversation about Gotham, the topic of either death or
salvation pops up. For example, the first time Rachel speaks to Batman she
states that “corruption is killing Gotham.” This is exactly what happened to
Bruce’s parents when they were murdered; corruption had created a high level of
unemployment, which created people desperate to survive, which lead to Wayne’s
parents being robbed and assassinated. One last clue that indicates that Gotham
represents the mother of Bruce Wayne is when a character tells Bruce, "As
Gotham’s favored son ..." To summarize, the fact that the comparison
between saving his parents and saving the city is made, the fact that the
people refer to the city as a woman, and that at least one of the characters
refers to it as one of the parents of Bruce, indicates that Bruce has engaged
in displacing his feelings towards his mother and moved them towards the city
of Gotham. <span style="color: red;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The next scenes explain
where Bruce is in the development of his superego when his parents are killed.
This occurs after the conversation in the train, when we see Thomas asking
Bruce, "the bats again?" (This makes reference to the fact that not
only is Bruce still thinking about the cave, but struggling to process it).
Then, Bruce's father shows him a necklace that he will gift his mother, which
makes explicit the fact that there still competition occurring for the mother’s
attention. In the next scene, Bruce asks his parent to leave. When they exit
through the side door, Thomas and Martha get robbed and shot. Bruce being in
the last stage of the development of his superego loses three things. The first
being his mom as the aim of his love, then the proper way in which to act from
his dad, and finally the ability to realize that his father is not trying to
castrate him. However, since his parents are dead, this cannot occur, and we
can observe Bruce’s reverting back to an earlier stage. Evidence of this is
seen when the he sees the robber coming, he seeks protection behind his mother
not his father. Furthermore, the robber is fulfilling Bruce’s desire of getting
rid of his competition, of getting rid of that source of jealousy. However, in
Oedipus Rex, it is the main protagonist the one that kills his father, which
means that Bruce in this story loses the ability to do it himself or the
ability to understand that the father is not a competitor trying to castrate
him, but rather a moral figure. Bruce redirects his attention into killing the
man that murdered his parents. Nevertheless, when Falcone sends a woman to kill
the robber for snitching on him, Bruce loses the ability to kill the man that
killed his parents. Notice how up to now, we can see him operating under the
drive of the Id (wanting to kill the robber), the reality principle (waiting
until he is in the open, hiding the gun), but not under the morality of the
super ego (killing is immoral). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">He then leaves everything behind in search of meaning. In search of that
which is unattainable: eliminating the threat that killed his parents. In his
search, as mentioned before, he ends up under the tutelage of Ra’s Al Ghul. The
leader of a group of vigilantes, known as the League of Assassins, trains him,
takes the role of a father figure, and tells him that executing criminals is
appropriate since it is for the greater good. This is Bruce’s final test. To
execute a criminal by beheading. However, the trauma of seeing the death of his
parents prevents him from doing this. Both in terms of death being distressing
and the morality provided by his father. This causes him to reject Ra’s Al Ghul
as a father figure and fighting back to the point where Bruce ends up destroying
the fortress of the League of Assassins. The culmination of all of this is when
Ra’s Al Ghul returns to Gotham to destroy it. His plan was to disperse a
chemical compound in the water supply that induces fear and evaporate it with
the help of a machine from Wayne Enterprises. To ensure the water supply was
evaporated, Ras Al Ghul attempted to destroy Wayne Tower (a phallic symbol) in
the middle of the city. This is symbolic of Bruce’s psychosexual stage. He
still thinks that Ra’s Al Ghul, the father figure, is trying to castrate him.
In other words, either Bruce rejoins him and follows his advice or Ra’s Al Ghul
destroys the phallic symbol of the Wayne Tower and has the city to himself. Batman
chooses to stop him. Bruce continues to listen to Alfred since he is the
reminder of what his father said. At the end, we get another glance at Bruce not
progressing in his development. Between choosing Rachel and the city (the
standalone for his mom), Bruce chooses Gotham. Nevertheless, Rachel tells him
that she will wait for him until he no longer feels the need to be Batman. Thus,
effectively remaining afraid of castration, ignoring the advice of his father
figure, retaining the mom as the love interest. However, he already started
listening to Alfred, a new father figure, and will date Rachel when he no
longer feels the need to protect Gotham, which means that he is not done yet,
but he has begun with the development of his superego. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br /></div>
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-46411095769791796942018-05-14T15:35:00.001-07:002018-05-14T15:35:51.900-07:00The Self in Brain Research<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">This essay is divided into three sections. The first
one describes the process in which science progresses and why, based on the
rules of this model, there has been a shift from psychoanalysis to behaviorism
and from that school of thought to neuroscience. The second section compares
the treatments derived from these three perspectives in terms of effect size,
relapse, and long-term outcomes. The last division proposes a new paradigm
shift, grounded in the pros and cons of each field, towards
neuropsychoanalysis.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">As mentioned before, the first focus of this paper
will be to describe the cycles, which elucidate how science develops throughout
time, proposed by the physicist and historian Thomas Kuhn. He made a notable
contribution in philosophy of science when he introduced the concept of
paradigm shifts in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Structure
of Scientific Revolutions.</i> This notion could be summarized as a cycle that
science goes through composed of five steps: normal science, model drift, model
crisis, model revolution, and paradigm shift. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The first part of the cycle represents the agreed conditions
in which science operates and is able to conduct further research. Religion,
which was one of the first attempts at explaining natural phenomena, will be
used as an example to describe each of the five steps in Kuhn’s concept. An
example of how it was used as normal science would be that the existing
knowledge about the past and every future discovery in nature could be
explained with religious doctrine. Specifically, by using religion as a model
to interpret phenomena, illnesses and the recovery from them were attributed to
supernatural phenomena. This is seen in ancient Greek religion, which credited
Asclepius, the Greek God of medicine, with medical recoveries.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Additionally, discoveries could also be interpreted
within the same model. For example, Judeo-Christian scripture asserts that
humans were created in one day. However, after Charles Darwin developed the
concept of evolution, a large portion of the catholic church stated that the
first chapter of the Bible was meant to be taken metaphorically rather than
literally. As well as stating that evolution was true, but it was God that either
made it happen, facilitated it, or provided the correct ingredients for it to
occur.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The second step, the model drift, is when scientists
start encountering questions that the existing model cannot answer. It is
evident that there are questions that religion, as a model, cannot answer. For
example, the fact that a person’s health improved or deteriorated depending on
their diet suggested that diseases had a biological basis rather than a
supernatural one. In other words, the conflict can be seen in question that asks
whether illnesses have a biological cause or supernatural entities have an
effect in biology and that is why scientists and doctors see medical
improvements after a change in diet. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Nevertheless, the questions that it does solve are explained
within the parameters of the model. For example, people followed a series of religious
rituals, including prayer, in order to have a successful harvest. On one hand, when
this occurred, it was because the Greek Goddess Demeter was content with the
rituals. On the other hand, when there was not a successful harvest,
individuals would make the claim that Demeter was not satisfied. However, when
individuals realized that the success of crops depended on different factors
such as the land, weather, and fertilizer, rather than Demeter, they
categorized agriculture in the realm of natural phenomena, while other unknown
processes such as rain were still considered as part of religion. The notion in
this model that what cannot be explained by biology, physics, etc., is caused
by supernatural entities belongs to a concept known as God of the gaps. For
example, in the Bible, diseases have a supernatural cause, unless the
biological one is known. A specific instance of this would be that individuals
thought boils had a natural cause and to treat it, they used a “poultice of
figs”. On the other hand, the origin of leprosy was unknown, which meant that
its origin was attributed to God and people prayed to be healed.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Going back to the competing theories of whether
illnesses had a biological basis or it was a supernatural entity having an
effect on the physiology of an individual, it is important to note why in
science the former is favored over the latter. This preference comes from the
concept Occam’s razor, also known as the law of parsimony, developed by the
theologian and philosopher William of Ockham. He asserted that when a number of
competing theories are present, the simple one should be chosen over a complex one.
By returning to the previous example, it becomes evident that one theory
consists of one factor, which would be a biological abnormality, and the other one
depends of two, which would be a supernatural entity and the biological
abnormality. Based on Occam’s razor, the former should be favored for its
simplicity. Otherwise, scientists would be confronted with more conflicting
questions such as why supernatural entities have to intervene in biological
processes to create diseases rather than just causing them without intervention
or how a supernatural entity interacts with biology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">In addition, there is another reason why, according to
the law of parsimony, scientists use biology, rather than religion, as the
foundation for treating illnesses. As stated before, the two competing options
were either a physiological basis for disease or a supernatural being having an
effect on human biology. Either way, by only studying physiology, scientists do
not need to discard any theory since they both have biology as the cause of
disease, as well as evidence supporting them. In other words, by reducing
theories to a model that consists only of its most basic elements that have
evidence, scientists can continue to conduct research without the conflict that
arises of having two competing theories present.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">However, when there are enough problems present that
the current model cannot answer, it is generally agreed that the model should
be dropped. This would be the third step: model crisis. Nevertheless, a model
is abandoned only when there is another one that can solve the problems its
predecessor could not. For example, Newton proposed laws of motion and
gravitation that had evidence supporting them. Nevertheless, physicists could
not determine the motion of the moon based on Newton’s law. In order to obtain
it, some scientists tried to change it by substituting the inverse square law with
one that diverged from it at shorter distances. Since there were not enough
puzzles unsolvable by this model, it remained unchanged until 1750, when there
was a paradigm shift.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ1LwSDW1Z2bMor_ZkK5Ebz_tTj3-P2RFo4E9grZGZxwpaVp-BPkcV0w_Iu1WCRiNWsQNbWIROxOwtctX_Cp8Y6wXQJScw8sWDHcIzv7fimDxhnAAIioBDnl6aue8uAT2FJlLLNAed2nc/s1600/F.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="694" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ1LwSDW1Z2bMor_ZkK5Ebz_tTj3-P2RFo4E9grZGZxwpaVp-BPkcV0w_Iu1WCRiNWsQNbWIROxOwtctX_Cp8Y6wXQJScw8sWDHcIzv7fimDxhnAAIioBDnl6aue8uAT2FJlLLNAed2nc/s320/F.jpg" width="246" /></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The fourth step would be a model revolution. This is
when a new model is created, one that is incompatible with the old one, but it
is better at answering questions the old model could not. By retaining the
example of religion, it would be evident that this could be exemplified by the four-temperament
theory that was incorporated into medicine by the philosopher Hippocrates. This
consisted of four bodily fluids: black bile, yellow bile, sanguine, and phlegm.
When they were balanced, an individual would be healthy, but when there was any
lack of stability of any of the fluids, a series of different ailments would arise.
The new model of temperaments is better than the previous one for two main
reasons. The first one is that it was able to answer some of the questions
religions could not. For example, when a person got better after getting
treatment with a variety of herbs and foods, but one who did not get treatment
did not get better, religion was not able to solely claim God as the reason why
people got better. Instead, they had to accept a biological component. Thus,
doctors started to treat diseases as a physical problem rather than a
supernatural one. The second reason is that treatments started to be
individualized. Each disease was given a specific treatment and this was more
helpful than treating them all equally. Finally, a paradigm shift, which is the
last step, consists of adopting the new model. This would mean that, once again,
scientists go back to the first step turning this new model into normal
science.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">In psychology, there have been different models that
attempt to explain behavior and mental processes such as psychoanalysis, behaviorism,
and neuroscience. The first model, which was founded by Sigmund Freud, consists
of a paradigm that revolved around the mind. Freud, who was a neurologist,
divided the mind into three parts in two different instances. The first time,
he stated that the three divisions were the conscious, the preconscious, and
the unconscious. The former contains everything an individual is aware of. For
instance, when a person thinks of what they are going to wear for the day. The
preconscious contains notions that a person is not aware of but can bring to
the conscious if they choose to such as a person who is not consciously
thinking of what they wore the day before, but they can remember if they intend
to. Lastly, the unconscious contains material individuals are not aware of
because it is being repressed. The second time he divided the mind was into the
ego, the superego, and the id. To summarize them with the risk of
oversimplifying them, the ego regulates the social and moral demands from the
superego in order to satisfy the wishes and drive from the id. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">In terms of normal science, phenomena would be
explained as a result of the different dynamics between this tripartite model.
For example, Freud theorized that dreams were the disguised fulfillment of
suppressed wishes demanded by the id. He asserted that children’s dreams were
easier to elucidate because their dreams were not censored. However, after an
individual reached a certain age, he or she would develop their superego, which
reminds the ego, that there are wishes that should not be fulfilled because of personal,
moral, social, political, and/or religious values and rules. The ego then
decides how the content should be distorted. If a wish does not break any of
the superego rules, then, there is minimal censorship such as a man who was
thirsty during the evening and dreams that he drinks water. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">There are other phenomena that can be explained by
psychoanalysis in terms of the dynamics between the ego, superego, and id such
as jokes, parapraxes, religion, sexuality, development, emotions, etc. This
would constitute descriptive science. However, psychoanalysis can also be
applied as a form of therapy. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">To examine its effectiveness in normal science,
psychoanalysis as a provider of treatment will be examined using its effect
size. This quantifies the difference between the experimental and control group
in standard deviation units. Specifically, an effect size of 0.2 would be
considered small, an effect size of 0.5 would be considered to have a moderate
effect, and a 0.8 would be considered a large effect size (Cohen, 1988). It is
important to first describe the effect size of psychotherapy in general. The
first major meta-analysis, which looked at 475 studies that compared people who
received therapy to those who did not, found an effect size of 0.85 (Smith,
Glass, & Miller, 1980), while a later study found an effect size of 0.75
(Lipsey and Wilson, 1993). This provides evidence that psychotherapy has a
large effect size and it is effective in treating mental illnesses.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">In terms of psychoanalysis, the Cochrane Library
conducted a meta-analysis of 23 randomized trials with 1,431 patients (Abbass,
Hancock, Henderson, & Kisely, 2006). The meta-analysis looked at four types
of categories of symptoms, which were general symptoms, somatic symptoms,
anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms, of people who attended therapy for
forty hours and were compared to either a wait list, treatment as usual, or
minimal treatment. In addition, there were three different types of follow-up
periods. A short-term one, which was under three months, a medium-term, which
was between three and nine months, and a long-term, which consisted of anything
longer than nine months. For general symptoms, there was an effect size of 0.97
with an effect size of 1.51 after a long-term follow-up. For somatic symptoms,
it was 0.81 with a long-term follow up of 2.21 and anxiety had an effect size
of 1.08 with a follow up of 1.35. Finally, depressive symptoms had an effect
size 0.59 with a follow up of 0.98. This demonstrates that psychoanalysis
effectively plays the role as a descriptive and applied form of science in the
first step of Kuhn’s cycle. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">However, it is not effective with every mental
illness. This qualifies it to be a model drift. For example, a study that
included four randomized trials and 528 patients compared psychoanalysis or
psychodynamic therapy, medication, and other types of therapy in their
treatment of schizophrenia (Malmberg, Fenton, &Rathbone, 2001). Malmberg
found that patients in psychodynamic therapy tended to remain unqualified to be
discharged compared to a group that only received medication. Moreover, he did
not find a difference between therapy and medication compared to medication
alone in terms of suicide or ability to be discharged. The authors also found
that it was unclear whether there was a difference in the number of patients
who were re-hospitalized after receiving long-term psychoanalytic therapy. In addition,
there was no difference between psychodynamic therapy and reality adaptive
psychotherapy in terms of re-hospitalization. However, patients tended to end
psychodynamic therapy before there was a clinically significant response compared
to the reality adaptive therapy. Finally, at a follow up of 12 months and one
of 3 years, it was found that less patients undergoing psychoanalytic therapy
needed extra medication compared to the group that received medication alone.
The authors’ conclusion was that since there was a small amount of studies that
studied therapy without medication, the results were still inconclusive.
Nevertheless, it is evident that medication is an important component that aids
people with schizophrenia and it should be combined with therapy (Malmberg,
Fenton, &Rathbone, 2001).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">This, as it was stated before, is the second step in
Kuhn’s cycles of science. However, this is not enough to cause a paradigm
shift. What produces the model crisis was a focus on evidence-based empiricism
only. The reason for this shift was because there was evidence for different theories
based on models that conflicted with each other. One of them is psychoanalysis,
which had the mind as a foundation, and behaviorism, which was grounded around behavior.
An example of how the conflict is present can be seen in a research paper
written by John B. Watson, who was the founder of behaviorism. He affirms that
the concept proposed by Freud of transference, which Watson defines as
patients’ love reactions, is true. However, instead of this being a result of
the dynamics of the mind, which is the paradigm of psychoanalysis, it was an
outcome of habit formation, which is a concept derived from behaviorism (<span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Watson, J. B., &
Morgan, J. J., 1917)</span>. Scientists at that time had to make a choice
between both of them and the decision made was taken for two reasons. The first
one, as it was mentioned before, was the focus on evidence-based empiricism. Since
there has not been empirical evidence of the mind, the idea was rejected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is important to introduce the concept of monism
and dualism. The former asserts that individuals interpret reality with
something that is made up of one material, which could be either a psychical
apparatus like the mind or something made up of matter such as a brain. Dualism
asserts that the mind interacts with the body. Since there is no empirical
evidence for the mind, one type of monism is rejected. The other two possible alternatives
are a matter-based monism or dualism. However, by referring back to Occam’s
razor, dualism has to be rejected over monism since it is a more complex
theory. For these reasons, the model of behaviorism was accepted. Thus, forming
part of the last two steps of Kuhn’s cycle.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Nevertheless, it is important to mention that the
simplest theory is not always the correct one. After another paradigm shift, it
was agreed by the scientific community that behaviorism by itself was an
inadequate model. By trying to reduce everything to behavior, it ignored the
biological component to human nature. This was solved by combining both nature
and nurture. Thus, integrating neuroscience with behaviorism. As a form of
treatment, this resulted in psychopharmacology and cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT). The effectiveness of both will now be presented to determine their
validity in replacing psychoanalysis and their role in normal science.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Before
examining the effectiveness of medication, it is important to describe how it
works in the brain. The brain is an organ made up of cells known as neurons, which
communicate using chemical signals that involve neurotransmitters such as
serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The turnover model, which is composed
of five steps, explains the process neurotransmitters undergo in order for them
to be released and have an effect. It is important to note that drugs
specifically target one or more of these steps in order to be effective. The
first step is biosynthesis, which is when the presynaptic cell synthesizes
neurotransmitters when a precursor interacts with an enzyme. For example, when
the precursor tyrosine interacts with the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, it
becomes L-Dopa, and when that precursor interacts with the enzyme DOPA
decarboxylase, the outcome is dopamine. Then, the second step is storage. This
is when the neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles, which fuse to the
membrane so they can be released. This release is the third step and it is
called exocytosis. Exo- meaning outside, cyto- meaning cell and -sis referring
to a process. In other words, the process in which a neurotransmitter is released
outside of the cell. Neurotransmitters travel into the space between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic cells, known as the synaptic cleft, where they
bind to the receptors located in the postsynaptic cells. After they bind, the
neurotransmitters have three options. The first one is that they can travel to
the extracellular space, thus, becoming lost. The second option is the fourth
step of enzymatic degradation. This refers to the fact that they can also be
broken apart by enzymes, such as monoamine oxidase (MAO). The final option and the
fifth step is reuptake, which describes how a neurotransmitter can be recycled
by a protein known as a transporter that picks it up and returns it to the
presynaptic cell where it can be reused later on. Another concept that is
important to explain would be of agonists and antagonists. The former simulates
a neurotransmitter by binding to the postsynaptic receptor and activating it.
The latter also binds to the postsynaptic receptors, but it blocks them, not
allowing the neurotransmitters to bind and activate them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The most common type of an antidepressant is a
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). This means that the drug blocks
the transporter that recycles serotonin. Therefore, this neurotransmitter
spends more time in the synaptic cleft. Thus, increasing the chances of binding
to the postsynaptic receptors. This suggests that depression is correlated with
not enough post-synaptic receptor activation by serotonin. Therefore,
neuroscience is effective at conducting normal science by describing phenomena
according to its model. However, it is now critical to examine its validity at being
an applied science. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">To inspect the efficacy of antidepressants and CBT, the
STAR*D study will be examined. It became the largest study of depression
treatment to date by examining more than 4,000 patients in 41 different centers
across the United States (Gaynes et a., 2008). It consisted of four treatment levels.
In the first one, patients received the SSRI Citalopram for a period of 12 to
14 weeks. If the patients responded well to the medication, there would be a
follow-up period of 12 months where the patients were still under their
medication. If the Citalopram did not have an effect on the patient or if the
patient had severe side effects, they would continue to the second level, which
consisted of three major options. One of the major possibilities had three
subdivisions. The first one was either using another SSRI such as Sertraline
instead of Citalopram. The second option was using an antidepressant that
targeted a different neurotransmitter’s system such as Bupropion, which is a
norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI). The last possibility was
taking an antidepressant that worked within the serotonin and another neurotransmitter’s
system such as Venlafaxine, which is a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitor (SNRI). The second major option was either adding an NDRI
antidepressant to an SSRI such as Bupropion with Citalopram or an SSRI with
medication that would enhance it such as Buspirone, which is a serotonin
agonist. The third option was CBT by itself or paired with an SSRI. If after
there was no effect or if there were harsh side effects, patients were moved to
the third level.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
new level consisted of either adding a new medication that had evidence of
aiding SSRIs such as Lithium, which helps synthesize serotonin or switching
medication that had a different mechanism of action such as Mirtazapine, which,
counterintuitively, works as a serotonin antagonist. As done in the levels
before this one, if patients did not get better or if their symptoms were
intolerable, they were moved to the fourth level. In this level, patients
received a new type of medication such as tranylcypromine, which is an MAOI, or
a combination of Venlafaxine and Mirtazapine. By covering every step in the
turnover model, scientists could find which system in the brain is responsible
for depression and how to target it.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
took six weeks on average to see a response to the antidepressants and almost
seven weeks for individuals to obtain remission. Additionally, on average,
patients visited their doctor between five to six times. The remission rates
were on average of 67%. The rates per level were 33% for the first level, 24%
for the second one, 6% for the third, and 4% for the last level (Gaynes et al.,
2008). In addition, those who went through more levels had higher relapse rates
and were more likely, both patient and doctor, to settle for a response. After
follow-up, those that had achieved remission instead of response had a better
prognosis at the 12-month follow-up. Moreover, the relapse rates after the 12-month
follow-up period were 40.1% in the first step, 55.3% in the second, 64.6% in
the third, and 71% in the fourth step. The average months it took for
patients to relapse were 3.6 across all levels, 4.1 in the first level,
3.9 in the second one, 3.1 in the third, and 3.3 in the last level (Rush et
al., 2006). This means that, on average, by the second level more than half of
the participants were going to relapse on their depression within three months
of the follow-up period.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In addition, it
is important to consider the size effect of medication. An FDA study found an
effect size of 0.26 for fluoxetine and sertraline, 0.24 for citalopram, 0.31
for escitalopram, and 0.30 for duloxetine. Moreover, a meta-analysis found an
effect of 0.17 for tricyclic anti-depressants (Moncrieff, Wessely, & Hardy,
2004) when compared to an active placebo.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> It is crucial to describe
the negative characteristic of medication, which include its side effects. The
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) did a review in 2004 of clinical trials of patients
that took antidepressants, including, but not limited to, SSRIs. The conclusion
of the review was that there was an increase of risk of suicidal thinking and
behavior in children, adolescents, and young adults that were under
antidepressants<span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">
(</span>Suicidality and Antidepressant Drugs - FDA., n.d.). Specifically, a
jump to four percent compared to two percent from the control group (“Antidepressant
Medications for Children and Adolescents,” n.d.). As a result of
antidepressants doubling the risk of suicidal behavior, the FDA put a black box
warning the following year in order to alert consumers. It is important to note
that there were no suicides committed in the study. In addition, another common
side effect is the worsening of depression. Therapy is usually paired with
medication to reduce these side effects.<span style="color: red;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"> In addition, the same
medication used as an antidepressant is given to people who have either a mood
or an anxiety disorder. According to the anxiety and depression association of
America (ADAA), anxiety and mood disorders are the most common mental illnesses
in the U.S. since they affect more than forty million Americans, totaling
around 18% of the population every year (“Facts & Statistics,” n.d.). The
side effects of the most common medication for PTSD include
convulsions, sudden loss of consciousness, loss of bladder control, muscle
spasms, blurred vision, dry skin, chest pain, weight gain or loss, hair loss,
heartburn, indigestion, and insomnia between others (</span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;">“Sertraline Side Effects in Detail,” n.d.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;">). This means that the majority of people who need
mental health treatment receive the same type of medication and may experience
the some of the same side effects.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">
The other form of treatment is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. The remission and
relapse rates were already provided in the STAR*D study. The effect size of CBT
depends on what it is treating. Therefore, a meta-analysis that examined its
effectiveness on different disorders will be used. In the treatment of cannabis
dependence, CBT had efficacy. However, it was a small effect size compared to
other psychosocial treatments such as relapse prevention and medication showed a
greater size effect in treating other dependencies with other drugs such as
alcohol and opioids (Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J., Sawyer, A. T.,
& Fang, A., 2014). In addition, CBT can reduce the positive symptoms of
schizophrenia and it is helpful when paired with antipsychotics in order to
treat acute episodes of psychosis. However, the effects disappear with patients
that live with a chronic disorder (Hofmann et al., 2014). It had little effect
on relapse and medium effect size for improvements in secondary outcomes such
as social anxiety.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Compared
to a wait list, in terms of major depressive disorder, CBT had an effect size
of 0.82 and compared to medication, it was 0.38 (Butler, A., Chapman, J.,
Forman, E., & Beck, A. 2006). However, CBT was as effective when compared
to other therapies such as psychodynamic therapy (Hofmann et al., 2014). In
addition, there is little evidence that CBT is effective in treating the
symptoms of bipolar disorder and the effects of it disappear at follow-up. With
general anxiety disorder (GAD), it has an effect size of .82 when compared to a
waitlist (Butler et al., 2006). In terms of personality disorders, a comparison
between CBT and psychodynamic therapy showed that the latter had a larger
effect size (Hofmann et al., 2014). For mood disorders, CBT was as effective as
psychodynamic therapy and interpersonal therapy.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Up until now, it seems that CBT and psychoanalysis are
equally effective in treating some disorders such as depression (<span style="background: white;">Leichsenring, F., 2001). In addition, both tend to be
superior to medication. However, it is important to note that there is a
publication bias in favor of CBT and that its effect sizes are overestimated,
especially in lower quality research papers (</span>Cuijpers et al., 2013).
Moreover, there is also a publication bias in favor of medication <span style="background: white;">(Turner, E., Matthews, A., Linardatos, E., Tell, R.,
& Rosenthal, R., 2008). Moreover, a meta-analysis did not find a
publication bias in favor of psychoanalysis (<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Leichsenring, F., 2008)</span>. The bias for medication
is shown in a meta-analysis that examined 78 studies with 12, 564 patients and
12 antidepressant agents. </span>Turner, along with other contributors of the
article, found that out of those 78 studies, 38 were positive and all of them
except one were published (Turner et al., 2008). Out of the thirty-six studies
left, 24 were and negative and 12 were questionable. From these, three were
published as unsuccessful, 22 were not published, and 11, while contradicting
the outcome of the FDA, were published as positive (Turner, 2008). The 51% of
positive studies had an average effect size of .37 for published studies and a
.15 for unpublished studies (Turner, 2008). The negative results are usually
left unpublished, and the positive ones, which have a tendency to be published,
only show a small effect size. This means that antidepressants are not as
efficient in achieving their purpose compared to other forms of therapy and
that there is a bias when it comes to publishing evidence on
psychopharmacology’s effects.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>CBT
does not have side effects, but it does have limitations. One of them is its
lasting effects on patients. One study that examined the effectiveness of CBT
in anxiety disorders, which is the category where CBT is the most efficacious,
and psychosis found that the short-term outcomes disappear over long periods of
time. In addition, it did not matter whether the therapy was conducted in the
usual ten sessions or if it was a more intensive version. Moreover, CBT was not
more cost-effective when compared to other forms of therapy (Walley, 2006).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>By
summarizing the data above, it becomes clear that psychoanalysis is a great
form of treatment. It is more effective than medication and CBT in some
disorders and equally as effective as CBT in others. However, the effect size
of CBT and medication are overestimated since there is a publication bias in
favor of them. This becomes alarming when it is shown that only half of the
studies done on antidepressants are positive. Moreover, psychoanalysis does not
share the same side effects of medication or the relapse rates of CBT and drug
treatments. In fact, after long-term follow ups it seems that patients that
underwent psychoanalytic therapy keep improving. For example, a study found
that psychoanalytic therapy had an effect size of 0.78 for mixed and moderate pathology
and an effect size of 0.94 at a follow up of 3.2 years, for reducing symptoms
it was 1.03, and 0.54 for personality change. For severe pathology, the effect
size was 0.94, 1.02 at a follow up of 5.2 years, and 1.11 in personality change
(<span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Maat, S. D.,
Jonghe, F. D., Schoevers, R., & Dekker, J., 2009)</span>. For
psychoanalysis, there was an effect size 0.87, with a follow up of 1.18, a
symptom reduction of 1.38, and an effect size of .076 for personality change. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Thus
far only short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy has been examined. Therefore, evidence
for long-term will be examined. A meta-analysis that looked at eight studies
found that when compared with other types of therapy, long-term psychodynamic
therapy had an effect size of 0.96 compared to 0.47 in overall effectiveness, 1.16
compared to 0.61 in target problems, and 0.90 compared to 0.19 in personality
functioning (<span style="background: white; color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">Leichsenring,
F., 2008).</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The next important point is to explain the reasons why
psychoanalysis is so effective. One of the reasons might be that it is an
individualized form of treatment. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a scripted
treatment and the same dose of the same drug is given to relatively all
patients at the start of their treatment. Doses and the drug are later changed,
depending on how a person reacts to it. In addition, studies show that medication
does not work equally with different subgroups of people. One of them being
children and, as was mentioned before, side effects affect this population
differently. However, psychoanalysis is individualized from the start. As Carl
Jung, an important psychiatrist in the field of psychoanalysis, stated in his
book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Undiscovered Self</i>: “For the
more a theory lays claim to universal validity, the less capable it is of doing
justice to the individual facts.” As mentioned before, one of the advantages
made from changing paradigms from religion to the four-temperament theory was
that the there was a change from equal treatment, which was prayer, etc., to a
treatment specific to each disease. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another crucial
aspect is that it involves subjectivity. This goes against the objectivity
mindset of science. Therefore, the question arises of why it should be an
important part of the field. The answer is that the subjectivity avoided in
science belongs to the personal point of view of a scientist investigating an
object (i.e. a chemical, a cell, actual matter). However, humans are both an
object and a subject. It is true that individuals, objectively, share certain
experiences. Nevertheless, they also do it subjectively and this is overlooked
in neuroscience and CBT, which seems counterintuitive since it forms an
important component of the human experience. For example, neuroscientist and
psychoanalyst Mark Solms gives a description of why subjectivity can be an
important component. He describes five patients in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Feeling Brain: Selected Papers on
Neuropsychoanalysis</i>.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The first one was Mrs. A, who was a retired nurse that
had suffered a ruptured aneurysm in the right middle cerebral artery of her
brain. Her symptoms included neglecting the left side of her body, recognizing
it belonged to her, and spatial disorientation, which are typical of her
injury. However, she was referred to a therapist for her depression, which is an
unusual symptom for her condition. In fact, it was affecting her so much that
she had attempted suicide twice. She reported that the cause of her depression
was because she kept losing everyday objects and because everybody hated her.
After further explanation, Mrs. A stated that these two causes were an outcome derived
from her loss of independence. The ironic thing is that she was indirectly
aware of her condition since she was conscious that people around her had to
take care of her, but she was not aware why. This notion of loss was
transferred to other familiar losses and she asserted that they also caused her
depression. These included the loss of her father, a hysterectomy, and everyday
objects. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJIlD60elG7m0Pyy9EuQqPXt7Q54DvmlI-qCJFkrTPnCKol8ssR2aumPe-tWf1E2OHSu8wUDsD50nazeisA6ddwEXW5bAfJTq90_micuId8wk85h5A0VgIaJ3UtAb6rEbbx-0T5emkCIk/s1600/F.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="320" data-original-width="600" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJIlD60elG7m0Pyy9EuQqPXt7Q54DvmlI-qCJFkrTPnCKol8ssR2aumPe-tWf1E2OHSu8wUDsD50nazeisA6ddwEXW5bAfJTq90_micuId8wk85h5A0VgIaJ3UtAb6rEbbx-0T5emkCIk/s1600/F.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">After analysis, it was shown that she had denied the
loss by means of introjection. This was a concept developed by Freud in his
paper “Mourning and Melancholia.” In here, he asserted that when an object that
an individual ambivalent loved and was narcissistically invested in was lost,
the loss would be repressed by means of unconscious introjection. Since the
object was also hated, the individual has to despise himself or herself. This
occurs because the existence of the object undergoes introjection and no longer
conscious. This is what occurred to Mrs. A. Therefore, her idea that everyone
hated her was an internal projection that came from her hating her left side of
her body for losing her independence.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Two more patients, which Solms referred to as Mrs. B
and Mr. C, had experienced strokes on the right side of the brain. Since both
of them had the same physiological damages in the same part of the brain, they all
ended up sharing the same symptoms as Mrs. A. These ranged from the ignoring of
the left side of their bodies to the spatial disorientation with the exception
of Mrs. A’s depression. Instead, their symptoms included a shade of narcissism.
Their sense of superiority was paradoxical since they were demanding, but
unaware of the condition that made them dependent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unconsciously, they were deeply affected by
the unilateral neglect. This is evident since after sessions “they understood a
sense of loss, humiliation, and failures.” As Freud asserted, a possible
defense is when there is an introjection of the libido of the object back into
the ego. So far it has become evident that the three patients have dealt with their
injuries by undergoing introjection part of themselves back into the ego, which
created the neglect of the injury.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;">The last two patients who suffered the same
physiological damage, Mr. D and Mr. E, were narcissistic in a different sense.
They were “impatient, imperious, obsessive, hyperactive, intolerant and
frustrated.” They made demands to the doctors to either cure their left side of
their body or amputate it. If it did not happen, they would either do it
themselves, kill the doctors, or kill themselves. They neglected the injury,
which had placed them in the hospital in the first place and blamed the doctors
for their condition. In this case, there was no introjection, but rather a
projection of the lost object and a hate towards it. In conclusion, the first
three patients internalized the lost object into their ego, where it was
attacked. This is evident in the notion that Mrs. A had depression and had
attempted suicide twice and Mrs. B and Mr. C on the crying in session consumed
over past losses. The last two patients projected the cause of the loss of the
object to the outside by claiming it was the doctors’ fault that they had the
alien limbs attached to them and it was their responsibility to amputate them.
In addition, the hate projected is seen in the threats made by the patients to
doctors and themselves.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
important thing here is that all of the patients had suffered the same
physiological lesion in the same area of the brain. However, they handled their
injury in different ways. The loss of control over the left side of their body
was experienced as a narcissistic wound that was accompanied with a feeling of
loss and dependency of the object lost. There were two possible solutions as a
defense for this injury, which were either an introjection of the cathected
lost object or a projection.<span style="color: red;"> </span>What these cases
suggest is that damage in the right hemisphere produces failure of the process
of mourning. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
important point to note here is that they all had the same brain injury. If the
brain of the five patients had been examined with different tools there would
not be a difference that showed that the patients were processing their
injuries differently. It was only when subjectivity was involved that these
differences were noticed and treated, which could suggest why psychoanalysis is
better in treating some disorders than other treatments. This means that there
are two perspectives when treating and understanding a person. One of them is a
physical, which refers to neuroscience. As mentioned before, this field has an
advantage over psychoanalysis over some criteria such as the treatment of
schizophrenia or the ability to look at biological data. The other point of
view is psychical, which refers to psychoanalysis. As mentioned before, this
field has an advantage over neuroscience over some criteria such as the
treatment of depression and the ability to look at subjective data. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
is why a new paradigm is in order. One that advocates for neuropsychoanalysis.
As it has been explained before, neuroscience has been conducting normal
science. For example, in terms of addiction, neuroscience asserts that in the
mesolimbic pathway there is a structure called the nucleus accumbens, which is
associated with the seeking of pleasure. From the same starting point of that
pathway, begins a different one called mesocortical pathway, which includes a
structure known as the prefrontal cortex that is in charge of inhibition,
planning, and regulating behavior. This is compatible with the Freudian model
of the mind. In fact, the nucleus accumbens shares the same functions as the id
and the superego shares similar functions with the prefrontal cortex. Moreover,
these brain areas are activated while a person dreams much as it would be
expected from the id and superego. In fact, damage to the ventromedial
prefrontal cortex is the only damage that can cause cessation of dreaming.
There is a model drift in neuroscience, which is that the treatments derived
from it are not as effective. A model crisis could be when it is seen that
neuroscience cannot account for subjectivity. As mentioned before, it can find
and explain the right hemisphere trauma, but it cannot predict or even look at
how individuals respond to this trauma. A model revolution would be the
proposal of a new paradigm shift, which in this case would be
neuropsychoanalysis. The same way there are tools used to find and treat
neurological injuries, the use of psychoanalytic techniques would be employed
to treat these psychological symptoms. For example, a CT scan would find the damage
in the right hemisphere of the brain and neuroscience would be able to explain
what caused the hemiplegia. However, the different symptoms of depression,
indifference, and obsession were only found by applying psychoanalytic therapy
and explained by introjection, denial, and projection, which are psychoanalytic
concepts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Nevertheless, psychoanalysis does not only need to be
clinically effective to be used in a paradigm. This is clearly seen in the
early paradigms of hypnosis, where Mesmer, who was a key factor in the
foundation of hypnosis, explained it in terms of animal magnetism. Even though,
hypnosis worked, the theoretical background behind it is now rejected.
Therefore, the possibility arises of what if psychoanalysis is clinically
effective, but not theoretically right. Especially taking into the
considerations of how scientists have arrived at the existing paradigm. Thus,
it is important to justify psychoanalysis from an epistemological point of view.
<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If
the previous paradigm shift was made on the basis that there is no empirical
evidence of the existence of the mind, there is no reason why scientists should
go back and accept it into their existing model of science. The answer to this
is a dual aspect-monism. This claims that individuals are only made up of one
material, but this can be perceived in two ways, objectively with the help of
neuroscience and subjectively with the help of psychoanalysis. In addition, one
of the reasons why there was a paradigm shift from behaviorism to neuroscience
is because Occam’s razor was rejected and it was understood that individuals
were more complex. The existing model of neuroscience and behavior are also not
complex enough since they do not take into account the subjective human
experience. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
conclusion, science changes in cycles based on epistemological reasons. This explains
the paradigm shifts from psychoanalysis to behaviorism to neuroscience.
However, by taking different criteria into account, it becomes evident that
psychoanalysis is a superior form of treatment when compared to medication and
CBT in some disorders and equal to others. The fact that it is an individualized
form of treatment and that it incorporates individuals’ subjectivity into the
model might be some of the reasons why psychoanalysis is so effective. Therefore,
a new paradigm on a neuropsychoanalytic model is justified on epistemological
grounds by championing dual-aspect monism and the advantages of psychoanalysis
and neuroscience.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: large; text-align: center; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">References<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Abbass, A. A., Hancock,
J. T., Henderson, J., & Kisely, S. (2006). Short-term psychodynamic
psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews, Issue 4, Article No. CD004687. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004687.pub3<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">Antidepressant
Medications for Children and Adolescents: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">Information
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Butler, A., Chapman, J.,
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therapy: A review of meta-analyses. <i>Clinical Psychology Review,26</i>(1),
17-31. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Cohen, J. (1988).
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Cuijpers, P., Berking,
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Gaynes, B., Rush, A.,
Trivedi, M., Wisniewski, S., Spencer, D., & Fava, M. (2008). The STAR*D
study: Treating depression in the real world. Cleveland Clinic journal of
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani,
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">Kuhn, T. S. (1962). </span><i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">The structure of
scientific revolutions</span></i><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Leichsenring, F. (2001). Comparative effects of
short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Leichsenring, F. (2008). Effectiveness of Long-term
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. <i>Jama,</i> <i>300</i>(13), 1551.
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Maat, S. D., Jonghe, F. D., Schoevers, R., &
Dekker, J. (2009). The Effectiveness of Long-Term Psychoanalytic Therapy: A
Systematic Review of Empirical Studies. <i>Harvard Review of Psychiatry,17</i>(1),
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Malmberg L, Fenton M, Rathbone
J. Individual psychodynamic psychotherapy and psychoanalysis for
schizophrenia and severe mental illness. Cochrane Database of Systematic
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Moncrieff, J., Wessely, S., & Hardy, R. (2004).
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">Ru</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">sh,
A., </span><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Trivedi%2C+Madhukar+H+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Trivedi, M., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Wisniewski%2C+Stephen+R+PhD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Wisniewski, S., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Nierenberg%2C+Andrew+A+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Nierenberg, A., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Stewart%2C+Jonathan+W+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Stewart, J., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Warden%2C+Diane+PhD+MBA"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Warden, D., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Niederehe%2C+George+PhD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Niederehe, G., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Thase%2C+Michael+E+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Thase, M., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Lavori%2C+Philip+W+PhD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Lavori, P., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Lebowitz%2C+Barry+D+PhD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Lebowitz, B., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/McGrath%2C+Patrick+J+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">McGrath, P., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Rosenbaum%2C+Jerrold+F+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Rosenbaum, J., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Sackeim%2C+Harold+A+PhD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Sackeim, H., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Kupfer%2C+David+J+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Kupfer, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Luther%2C+James+MA"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Luther, J., </span></a><a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/author/Fava%2C+Maurizio+MD"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Fava M. </span></a><span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;">(2006).
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Sertraline Side Effects in Detail.
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Smith, M. L., Glass, G. V., & Miller, T. I. (1980).
The benefits of psychotherapy. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Suicidality and Antidepressant Drugs - FDA. (n.d.).
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Turner, E., Matthews, A., Linardatos, E., Tell, R.,
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Watson, J. B., & Morgan, J. J. (1917). Emotional
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<span style="background: white; color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Walley, P. T. (2006). Long-term outcome of cognitive
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<br />Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-75462570927419154572018-04-03T17:06:00.000-07:002018-04-03T17:16:20.561-07:00Gods of Our Fathers: The United States of Enlightenment<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman", serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Why should we care what
the Founding Fathers believed, or did not believe, about religion? They went to
such great trouble to insulate faith from politics, and took such care to keep
their own convictions private, that it would scarcely matter if it could now be
proved that, say, George Washington was a secret Baptist. The ancestor of the
American Revolution was the English Revolution of the 1640s, whose leaders and
spokesmen were certainly Protestant fundamentalists, but that did not bind the
Framers and cannot be said to bind us, either. Indeed, the established
Protestants church in Britain was one of the models which can be quite sure the
signatories of 1776 were determined to avoid emulating.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> Moreover, the
eighteenth-century scholars and gentlemen who gave us the U. S. Constitution
were in a relative state of innocence respecting knowledge of the cosmos, the
Earth, and the psyche, of the sort that has revolutionized the modern argument
over faith. Charles Darwin was born in Thomas Jefferson’s lifetime (on the same
day as Abraham Lincoln, as it happens), but Jefferson’s guesses about the
fossils found in Virginia were to Darwinism what alchemy is to chemistry. And
the insights of Einstein and Freud lay over a still more distant horizon. The
furthest that most skeptics could go was in the direction of an indeterminate
design which accepted that the natural order seemed to require a designer but
did not necessitate the belief that the said designer actually intervened in
human affairs. Invocations such as “nature’s god” were partly intended to hedge
this bet, while avoiding giving offense to the pious. Even Thomas Paine, the
most explicitly anti-Christian of the lot, wrote <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Age of Reason </i>as a defense of god from those who traduced him
in man-made screeds like the Bible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> Considering these
limitations, it is quite astonishing how irreligious the Founders actually
were. You might not easily guess, for example, who was the author of the
following words:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Oh! Lord! Do you think that a Protestant Popedom is
annihilated in America? Do you recollect, or have ever attended to the
ecclesiastical Strifes in Maryland Pensilvania [sic], New York, and every part
of England? What a mercy it is that these People cannot whip and crop, and
pillory and roast, as yet in the U.S.! If they could they would…. There is a
germ of religion in human nature so strong that whenever an order of men can
persuade the people by flattery or terror that they have salvation at their
disposal, there can be no end to fraud, violence, or usurpation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">That
was John Adams, in relatively mild form. He was also to point out, though
without too much optimism, the secret weapon that secularists had at their disposal
– namely the profusion of different religious factions:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The multitude and diversity of them, You will say, is
our Security against them all. God grant it. But if we consider that the
Presbyterians and Methodists are far the most numerous and the most likely to
unite; let a George Whitefield arise, with a military cast, like Mahomet, or
Loyola, and what will become of all the other Sects who can never unite?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">George
Whitefield was the charismatic preacher who is superbly mocked in Benjamin
Franklin’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Autobiography</i>. Of Franklin
it seems almost certainly right to say that he was an atheist (Jerry Weinberg’s
excellent recent study <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Benjamin Franklin
Unmasked</i> being the best reference here), but the master tacticians of
church-state separation, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, were somewhat more
opaque about their beliefs. In passing the Virginia Statute for Religious
Freedom – the basis of the later First Amendment – they brilliantly exploited
the fear that each Christian sect had of persecution by the others. It was
easier to get the squabbling factions to agree on no tithes than it would have
been to get them to agree on tithes that might also benefit their doctrinal
rivals. In his famous “wall of separation” letter, assuring the Baptist of
Danbury, Connecticut, of their freedom from persecution, Jefferson was
responding to the expressed fear of this little community that they would
oppressed by – the Congregationalists of Connecticut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> This
same divide-and-rule tactic may have won him the election of 1800 that made him
president in the first place. In the face of a hysterical Federalist campaign
to blacken Jefferson as an infidel, the Voltaire of Monticello appealed
directly to those who feared the arrogance of the Presbyterians. Adams himself
thought that this had done the trick.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> “With
the Baptists, Quakers, Methodists, and Moravians,” he wrote, “as well as the
Dutch and the German Lutherans and Calvinists, it had an immense effect, and
turned them in such numbers as decided the election. They said, let us an
Atheist or Deist or any thing rather than an establishment of Presbyterianism.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> The
essential point – that a religious neutral state is the chief guarantee of
religious pluralism – is the that some of today’s would-be theocrats are
determined to miss. Brooke Allen misses no chance to rub it in, sometimes
rather heavily stressing contemporary “faith-based” analogies. She is
especially interesting on the extent to which the Founders felt obliged to keep
their doubts on religion themselves. Madison, for example, did not find himself
able, during the war of 1812, to refuse demands for a national day of prayer
and fasting. But he confided his own reservations to his private papers,
published as “Detached Memoranda” only in 1946. It was in those pages, too, that
he expressed the view that to have chaplains opening Congress, or chaplains in
the armed forces, was unconstitutional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> Of
all these pen-portraits of religious reservation, the one most surprising to
most readers will probably be that of George Washington. While he was
president, he attended the Reverend James Abercrombie’s church, but on
“sacramental Sundays” left the congregation immediately before the taking of
communion. When reported for this by the good Reverend, he acknowledged the
reproof – and ceased attending church at all on those Sundays, which featured
“the Lord’s supper.” To do otherwise, as he put it, would be “an ostentatious
display of religious zeal arising altogether from his elevated station.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> Jefferson
was content to take part in public religious observances and to reserve his
scorn and contempt for Christianity for his intimate correspondents, but our
first president would not give an inch to hypocrisy. In that respect, if in no
other, the shady, ingratiating Parson Weems had him right.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In
his 1784 book, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Reason: The Only Oracle of
Man, </i>Ethan Allen wrote: “The doctrine of the Incarnation itself, and the
Virgin mother, does not merit a serious confutation and therefore is passed in
silence, except the mere mention of it.” John Adams was prepared to be a little
more engaged with theological subjects, in which he possessed a huge expertise,
but he also reposed his real faith in the bedrock of reason. Human
understanding, he wrote (seemingly following David Hume), is its own
revelation, and:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">[h]as made it certain that two and one make three; and
that one is not three; nor can three be one…. Miracles or Prophecies might
frighten us out of our Witts; might scare us to death; might induce Us to lie;
to say that We believe that 2 and 2 makes 5. But we should not believe it. We
should know the contrary.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">From
David Hume via ridicule of the Trinity to a prefiguration of Winston Smith! The
connection between religious skepticism and political liberty may not be an
absolute as that last allusion implies, but there is no doubt that some such
connection existed very vividly in the minds of those “men of the Enlightenment”
who adorned Philadelphia and Boston and New York and Washington as the eighteenth
century evolved into the nineteenth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> In
a first-class closing chapter on the intellectual and scientific world that
shaped the Framers, Allen discusses the wide influence then exerted by great
humanist thinkers like Hume, Shaftesbury, Bolingbroke, Locke, and Voltaire. It
became a point of principle as well as of practice to maintain that liberty of
conscience and the freedom of the individual were quite incompatible with any
compulsion in religion, just as they would be incompatible with any repression
of belief. (This is precisely why the French Revolution, which seemed to negate
the promise of Enlightenment, was to become such a painful cause of
disagreement, and worse, between Federalists and Republicans.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> In
1821 Thomas Jefferson wrote of his hope “that the human mind will some day get
back to the freedom it enjoyed 2000 years ago. This country, which has given
the world an example of physical liberty, owes to it that of moral emancipation
also.” I think that Allen is not wrong in comparing this to the finest passages
in Edward Gibbon. She causes us to catch our breath at the thought that, at
birth of the United States, there were men determined to connect it to a
philosophical wisdom that pre-dated the triumph of monotheism. It is the only
reason for entertaining the belief that America was ever blessed by
“Providence” – as Roger Williams named his open minded settlement in Rhode
Island, a refuge from the tyranny of Pilgrims and Puritans.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> In
a time when the chief declared enemy of the American experiment is theocratic
fanaticism, we should stand together and demand, “Mr. Jefferson: Build Up That
Wall!”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p>-Christopher Hitchens</o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Weekly Standard</i>, December 11, 2006)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-64148310094352905312017-11-30T22:30:00.000-08:002017-11-30T23:37:02.344-08:00Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology <div class="OutlineElement Ltr SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: white; clear: both; cursor: text; direction: ltr; font-family: "Segoe UI", Arial, Verdana, sans-serif; margin: 0px; overflow: visible; padding: 0px; position: relative; user-select: text;">
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<span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-size: large; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"></span><br />
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<span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-size: large; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk34nRmmxfFuHq9QT3QUfdzoxQ24aVEw7zern2H4JRVp-MLpN5EgLyBpegTnYv76Mwqz5wpCE4ARdO5n1_E7367bP9NM8incWrI2jZOFdaAI9NIK-MWFJKB0ZuYtneJUhttOIrMgxReFU/s1600/psy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="674" data-original-width="1200" height="223" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhk34nRmmxfFuHq9QT3QUfdzoxQ24aVEw7zern2H4JRVp-MLpN5EgLyBpegTnYv76Mwqz5wpCE4ARdO5n1_E7367bP9NM8incWrI2jZOFdaAI9NIK-MWFJKB0ZuYtneJUhttOIrMgxReFU/s400/psy.jpg" width="400" /></a><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">There are two ma</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> branches </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">of</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">psychology. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">dividuals can either conduct research or apply it. The former, consists of sub-branches that explore a specific portion of behavior o</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">r</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> cognition. For example, bio-psychologists study the relationship between biology and behavior (i.e. how enzymes help modulate movement), cognitive psychologists explore how </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">formation is processed (i.e. how a cognitive bias can </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">fluence decision-mak</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g). The latter is </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> charge of apply</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g said </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">formation. For example, a cognitive psychologist might work on creat</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g tests that cannot produce cognitive biases </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> an </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">dividual or a cl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ical psychologist can provide a type of </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">py that has empirical support. Nevertheless, it seems that there is a disconnection between psychologists who conduct research and those who apply it. The purpose of this essay is to focus on this separation from a cl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ical perspective. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">However, before start</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g, it is important to note why this topic is of critical importance.</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-size: large; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">One of them is the </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">crease in number of pseudo-scientific </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">es such as neuro-l</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">guistic programm</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g and the rage reduction </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">py. This means that uniformed </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sts can provide someth</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g that eventually harms the patients </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">stead of rely</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> evidence-based treatments. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> addition, surveys reveal that cl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ical </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sts rely more heavily </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> subjectivity and </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">tuition rather than what has been mentioned before. This means that </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sts might be </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">fluenced by other th</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">gs such as cognitive biases, etc., which can affect the patient </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> a negative manner.</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-size: large; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-size: large; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Moreover, not only can the </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">st be uniformed, but the patient too. If he hears </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> the media or learns </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> academia, which are places that </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="ContextualSpellingAndGrammarError SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sometimes spread</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">formation without double check</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g if it is scientific valid, he could, </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">stead of receiv</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g treatment from a certified </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sts, search for harmful treatments or ones that are not effective.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559731":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPhm5ecjFj1R22bLOv1OHScPoks-BebltyOKWichnbjid7cLTH7xGE56pUMJe4t5c7pRUZ1P1deTMzv7c_PJOr34jUgKECm4XvgQqMLfk0YVPcpipeCa54v2Jq8LVBUCbsNyTJ4OVdllI/s1600/candance.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="background-color: transparent; clear: right; display: inline !important; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="400" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPhm5ecjFj1R22bLOv1OHScPoks-BebltyOKWichnbjid7cLTH7xGE56pUMJe4t5c7pRUZ1P1deTMzv7c_PJOr34jUgKECm4XvgQqMLfk0YVPcpipeCa54v2Jq8LVBUCbsNyTJ4OVdllI/s320/candance.jpg" width="213" /></a><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> Additionally, the author talks about three specific ways </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> which pseudo-scientific treatments can have negative consequences. One of them, and the most obvious, is that it can be harmful. This is best exemplified by the case of a </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">ten-year-old</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> from Colorado, Candace </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="SpellingError SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">Newmaker</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">, who died accidentally from a type of rebirth </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">py. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> this form of pseudo-</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">py, Candace was</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">wrapped from head to toe </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">and</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> surrounded by pillows. Moreover, she screamed for help, s</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ce she could not breathe, but her cries were ignored; she died after a </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">70-m</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ute-long</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> session. The second would be related to a concept known as opportunity cost. This is when available resources that belong to the patient as misused </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> pseudo-</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">es. For example, when an </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">dividual has limited time and money to receive mental health, but </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">stead he or she opts to get treatment, unknow</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">gly, from a quack doctor. The third way </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> which it could have negative consequences would be by damag</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g the foundations of science.</span></span></span></div>
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<div class="Paragraph SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" paraeid="{a110235d-1bce-4530-a099-43d365819d4f}{19}" paraid="1601222100" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 48px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; word-wrap: break-word;" xml:lang="EN-US">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">This could be expla</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ed </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> two ways. The first one would be that it damages the public's perception of the scientific basis for cl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ical psychology. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> other words, </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">dividuals could be less likely to search for mental help or they could be less likely to trust their </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">st. The second way would be by affect</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g prospective psychologists. </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> other words, students could be lazy </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> the search for scientific truth (i.e. turn</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g a bl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">d eye for the practitioners-scientists gap and pursu</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g, unknow</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">gly, pseudoscience).</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559731":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> It is important to note that there are indicators that separate what is science and what is not. One of them is that the pseudoscience relies heavily in </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">ad hoc </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">hypotheses. These are hypotheses that are imposed on a theory that has holes. An example of this is seen in the </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; font-style: italic; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">not a true Scotsman fallacy</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">. In other words, if someone reads a research paper that states that rebirth therapy is not effective, the person could claim that whoever conducted the session was not a true rebirth therapist. Another indicator is self-correction. Science is in constant change and if a field has remained </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">stagna</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">nt</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">,</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> it may po</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">int towards </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">a </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">lack of validity. This is clearly shown in astrology, which is a field that has not had any advancements in terms of understanding personality. On the other hand, the sub-branch in psychology of development and personality had been in constant change and it adapts itself every time a researcher discovers new findings. </span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJHAwlS2Q9sMzsHfGflJk2zfLku9pYwgjkLM1PSOCSYMb-PMYMRUFcFH9mMU92vWWKvlTBk-vtp_nZ4FiC9qnESay-EyROwhXzairEmwncj1W-ECKWBsrcz18aoLJ5S270vqUK1EC6WzY/s1600/black.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="1600" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJHAwlS2Q9sMzsHfGflJk2zfLku9pYwgjkLM1PSOCSYMb-PMYMRUFcFH9mMU92vWWKvlTBk-vtp_nZ4FiC9qnESay-EyROwhXzairEmwncj1W-ECKWBsrcz18aoLJ5S270vqUK1EC6WzY/s320/black.jpg" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> A foundation in science, made by the philosopher of science Karl Popper, is the ability to falsify hypothesis. This is why scientists do not try to confirm their theory, but rather disprove it. A beautiful example of why this is a central tenant of science is described </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">in</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">the story of the black swan. For a long time, Europeans thought that swans were only white and if they wanted to test this, the only thing they had to do would be to collect a sample of swans. Nevertheless, since there were only white swans in Europe, people would only find a sample of the population that confirmed their theory. This changed when Australia was discovered alongside black swans. This means that it did not matter how much researchers confirmed their hypothesis, only one piece of evidence is needed to disprove it. In addition, to prove a hypothesis</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">,</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> it is necessary to test the whole population, but sometimes this is impossible either because of time/financial constraints or researchers are unaware of who</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">m</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> the whole population is. </span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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<div class="Paragraph SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" paraeid="{a110235d-1bce-4530-a099-43d365819d4f}{47}" paraid="2103901839" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: transparent; color: windowtext; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 48px; user-select: text; vertical-align: baseline; word-wrap: break-word;" xml:lang="EN-US">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">The last indicator that is going to be mentioned here is a fallacy known as </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">the</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> </span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">burden of proof, however, it is important to mention that there are many others </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="ContextualSpellingAndGrammarError SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">signals</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">. Burden of proof is when the person who presents the claim does not support it, but rather asks other </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">individuals to provide evidence that contradicts their assertion. It is important to be aware of this since some hypothes</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">es</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> cannot be tested (</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="SpellingError SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; background-image: url("data:image/gif; background-position: left bottom; background-repeat: repeat-x; border-bottom: 1px solid transparent; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">i</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">.e. someone is healed because God decided to).</span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559731":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> The practitioner-scientist gap supports the idea that several cl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ical psychologists tend to rely on their own judgments rather than conduct</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">g a literature review. However, there is not a positive relationship between years of experience, which is one of the reasons why </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sts depend on themselves, and effectiveness or the validity </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> the </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">py conducted. For example, a study found that a comparison between seasoned cl</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">icians and </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">dividuals who just started </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> the field, who conducted the M</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">nesota Multiphasic Personality </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">In</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ventory</span></span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;"> (MMPI) yielded as a result no difference between these two groups. On the other hand, other studies have shown that there has been an </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">verse relationship between experience and validity s</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ce new </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">thera</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">pi</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">sts are tra</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">ed with the most accurate and up to date-</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">formation, while veterans tend to use past </span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">in</span><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW19964121" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; -webkit-user-drag: none; background-color: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; user-select: text;">formation.</span></span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">In conclusion, there are differences that separate science and pseudo-science such as the ability to </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">test</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> a hypothesis in order to falsify it</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">.</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> It is important to be aware of what constitutes the pseudo-science</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">since there could be negative implications. These reasons range from harming the patient to wasting his or her resources. </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">Mo</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">reover</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">, there are indicators people can use in order to </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">i</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">dentify</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> what is science and what is not such the usage of the t</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">rue </span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">Scot</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">sman</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US"> and b</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">urden of p</span><span class="TextRun SCXW19964121" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" xml:lang="EN-US">roof fallacies.</span><span class="EOP SCXW19964121" data-ccp-props="{"201341983":0,"335551550":6,"335551620":6,"335559731":720,"335559739":160,"335559740":480}" style="font-family: "times new roman" , "times new roman_msfontservice" , serif; line-height: 38px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"> </span></span></div>
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-75097732155005576702017-05-11T21:43:00.001-07:002017-05-11T23:18:25.184-07:00A comparison between medication and therapy<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<img alt="Image result for drug medication on a plate" height="225" src="https://ak8.picdn.net/shutterstock/videos/1937401/thumb/4.jpg" width="400" /></div>
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Both
forms of treatment seek the same result, for the patient to have a balanced
mental life. However, both of them come with different pros and cons that allow
the patients to decide what the best option would be for them. In the case of
medication, one of them is side-effects. An example of this would be the
outcome the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) obtained when they conducted a
review in 2004. The results of the metanalysis suggested that, for children
with major depressive disorder (MDD), antidepressants double the risk of
suicide attempts (NIHM, n. d.) This is why antidepressants that are given to
children have a black box as a warning signal, the black box warns parents
about the worsening of other symptoms such as asocial activity and insomnia.
However, this is not only limited to antidepressant medications, but rather to
every form of drug therapy. An example of this is PTSD medication, which the
side effects include convulsions, sudden loss of consciousness, loss of bladder
control, muscle spams, blurred vision, dry skin, chest pain. weight gain or
loss, hair loss, heartburn, indigestion, and, but not limited to, insomnia
(Sertraline, n. d.). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
This
falls into greater contrast when it is compared to one of the biggest criticism
therapy receives, which is that it takes too long. Usually, people start
observing the effects of antidepressants after two weeks, but some forms of
therapy take years to complete. However, this is not true for every mental
disorder. For example, a study found that the symptoms of Attention Deficit
Disorder with Hyperactivity (ADHD) were managed in therapy in a shorter time
when compared to methylphenidate, also known as Ritalin, which is the most
common medication for the disorder mentioned above. In the study,
psychoanalytic therapy was able to aid patients with ADHD in twenty-five months
and for the drug it was twenty-nine (Laeser, 2015). <o:p></o:p></div>
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This
creates a very important advantage for therapy. One one hand, medication
creates side effects that make the patient's life more complicated and
sometimes it worsens the very thing it is trying to treat. On the other hand,
therapy does not have side effects and in at least one mental disorder it helps
treat it faster. In addition, once people were done with therapy they reported
an effect of their disorder that was the same compared to those that were still
taking methylphenidate. In other words, once patients completed therapy they
were able to manage the symptoms of their disorder, however, people taking
Ritalin could not stop taking it, otherwise, they would relapse to their
original selves. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Turner
(2008) found that between 1987 and 2004, out of 78 studies of antidepressants,
38 were positive and all of them, except one, were published. On the other
hand, 36 were negative and only three were published as unsuccessful. The
majority of the positive studies had an effect sizes of .37 and the unpublished
ones had a .15 effect size. In summary, between 1987 and 2004, 49% of studies
of antidepressants had negative results, which were mostly left unpublished,
but the positive ones show that antidepressants have a smaller effect on
helping people with depression. <o:p></o:p></div>
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On
the other hand, the Cochrane Library conducted a study of psychoanalytic
therapy discovering that it had a large average effect size of .97 (Shedler, n.
d.). This was an average across all mental disorders, but specifically speaking,
it had an effect size of .59 for depressive symptoms, .81 for somatic ones, and
1.08 for anxiety. This is a great contrast compared to the average effect size
of .15 of unpublished antidepressant studies. It is even greater than the
published studies that had an average effect of .37. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Moreover,
the study looked at patients after nine months of completion and they
discovered that patients kept improving. The effect sizes were .98 for
depressive symptoms, 1.35 for anxiety, and 2.21 for somatic ones. This finding
gives an advantage to therapy when it is compared that people have to stay on their
medication or they fall into a relapse of their disorder. This looks worrisome
when the number of people that receive medication is compared to those who
attend therapy. In the United States, in 2012, 78 million Americans consumed
medication to aid with their mental health at some point during that year.
However, the American Psychological Association reported only 58 Americans
attended therapy. Now the question is why? Well, the drug industry spends more
money on marketing than they do on research and development of their drugs.<o:p></o:p></div>
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According to the PEW research center, the
industry spent $27 billion on marketing. From that budget $24 was marketed
directly to doctors. This means that physicians have three options. One is to
redirect their patients to a therapist, but they lose the patient and thus the
money. Two, they themselves give the therapy (only psychiatrists are allowed to
do this, and if they are not specialized in this branch of medicine, they would
have to redirect their patients, which means they lose patients and thus
money), but they would see less patients per day which equals to less money. Or
three, they can prescribe medication, thus, seeing more patients per day, and
prescribing the medications of the highest bidder.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In
conclusion, more patients are receiving medication as their form of treatment
for their mental disorder when compared to therapy. Even though in some
disorders, therapy was faster, more effective, and did not have side effects.<o:p></o:p></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-3351775128202768652016-09-26T12:31:00.001-07:002016-09-26T12:31:19.009-07:00Introduction to Neuroanatomy - Part 3 (Brain Structures - Telencephalon and Diencephalon)<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;">Brain Structures and their Functions</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">To learn more about neuroanatomy, please check out: "Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas," by John H. Martin.</span>
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<span style="font-size: large;">In the last post, we ended explaining the development of the spinal cord. We will continue this discussion by exploring the structures of the brain from a bottom-up perspective and describe their functions. </span></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://images.slideplayer.com/24/6989703/slides/slide_19.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><span style="font-size: x-large;">Cranial and Non-cranial Nerves</span></h3>
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<a href="http://images.slideplayer.com/24/6989703/slides/slide_19.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for alar plate migrating laterally" border="0" src="http://images.slideplayer.com/24/6989703/slides/slide_19.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">If you read the last post (Here is the link: </span><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://hbookreviews.blogspot.com/), you should remember that the spinal cord was divided by two plates: basal and alar. When we move up from the spinal cord into the brain we would observe a collection of structures known as the brainstem. In here, the plates become nerves. The alar plate becomes the cranial nerve sensory nuclei and the basal becomes the cranial nerve motor nuclei. Remember that a nerve is a bundle of axons in the central nervous system (CNS) and that nuclei are a collection of cell bodies that are also located in the CNS. Thus, the phrase "cranial nerve motor nuclei" tells us what the body part is (nerve=bundle of axons (1)), where it is (the nuclei is located inside the CNS, which is either the brain or the spinal cord (2)), and what it does (motor refers to sending information across the spinal cord that will eventually create movement. As you can see from the picture to the right, the dorsal or alar plates moved laterally in the brainstem.</span></span><br />
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<span style="clear: left; float: left; font-size: large; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/799/flashcards/6810799/jpg/clayman67e-14B7033E4703DEE50E8.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for brainstem" border="0" height="320" src="https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/799/flashcards/6810799/jpg/clayman67e-14B7033E4703DEE50E8.jpg" style="text-align: justify;" width="260" /></a><a href="http://www.myshepherdconnection.org/docs/brainstem.gif" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for brainstem" border="0" src="http://www.myshepherdconnection.org/docs/brainstem.gif" height="242" width="320" /></a>The brain stem is composed of three structures. They are the medulla, the pons, and the midbrain (3). Before we go into their functions, I want to keep talking about nerves. Each of these structures has non-cranial nerve nuclei. The inferior olivary nuclei are located in the medulla and they are responsible for hearing functions. The pontine nucleus is located in the pons and it is responsible for skilled movement control. The red nucleus and the substantia nigra are located in the midbrain. They are responsible for descending motor and ascending motor information, respectively. We will cover more of the brain stem later. </span><span style="text-align: center;"></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">There is a total of twelve cranial nerves. Next to them I'll write their functions. They are:</span></span><br />
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Olfactory - This nerve helps with the sense smell (6).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Optic - This nerve helps with vision by transmitting information from the retina to the brain (5).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Oculomotor - This nerve helps with eye movement and accommodation, as well as pupil constriction (4).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Trochlear - This nerve helps the eye move up and down (7).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Trigeminal - This nerve sends somatosensory (this means sensory information from the skin) information from the face and movement of the jaw (8).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Abducens - This nerve helps with side to side movement of the eye (9).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Facial - This nerve helps send somatosensory information from the ear and sensory information from the tongue. As well as, movements of the face (facial expressions) (10).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Vestibulocochlear - This is a sensory nerve that deals with audition and balance (11).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Glossopharyngeal - This nerve sends somatosensory information from the tongue and the pharynx. In addition, it sends sensory (taste) information from the posterior one-third of the tongue (12).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Vagus - This nerve has some motor and sensory functions that range from swallowing and gland control to taste and involuntary muscle movement in the viscera (13). </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Accessory - This nerve helps with the movement of the head (14).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Hypoglossal - This nerve helps with the movement of the tongue (15). </span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: x-large;">Prosencephalon</span></h3>
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<a href="http://web7.login-3.hoststar.ch/brain/gallery/anatomyA_2_s.gif" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for telencephalon" border="0" src="http://web7.login-3.hoststar.ch/brain/gallery/anatomyA_2_s.gif" height="305" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Now, that we covered the twelve cranial nerves, we are going to explore the structures of the brain using an embryological perspective. Do you remember the three main divisions? (It was covered in the second post) They were the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. The former was two subdivision, they are the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The first one can be divided into three smaller parts: the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, and the limbic system, which is made up of the amygdala and the hippocampus. I know.. I know... It may seem as if it is too much information to process at once, but we will break it down apart in order to make it easier to understand. Think of the telencephalon as the superior part of the brain, as the cerebral hemispheres. The picture to the right also includes the corpus callosum in the telencephalon. This is the structure that connects both hemispheres, it helps by letting them communicate with each other (It is Latin for callous body). </span></div>
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<a href="https://jeffreysterlingmd.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/cerebralcortex.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for cerebral cortex" border="0" height="217" src="https://jeffreysterlingmd.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/cerebralcortex.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://schatz.sju.edu/neuro/neurofound/pics/pariet_lobe.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><br /></a><a href="http://schatz.sju.edu/neuro/neurofound/pics/pariet_lobe.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><br /></a><span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">To understand the function of the cerebral cortex, we have to explore first the lobes of the brain. As you can see there are four major lobes, they are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The first lobe is in charge of a variety of functions (16). The prefrontal cortex is located in the most rostral part of the frontal lobe. It is in charge of executive function, which is a set of cognitive skills that include planning, inhibition, and logical thinking.</span><span style="font-size: large;"> The frontal lobe also handles movement. There is a fissure that separates the frontal and parietal lobe is called the central fissure. The gyrus before the central fissure is called the precentral gyrus and it is where the majority of motor tasks are processed. Before the precentral gyrus, there is a structure known as Broca's area. This is the location where speech is produced. </span>The parietal lobe, which is located after the central sulcus or fissure, handles somatosensory information (16). The postcentral gyrus is where the primary somatosensory cortex is located. This means that it handles sensory info from the skin such as pain, pressure, and temperature. The occipital lobe is where the primary visual cortex is located. Primary auditory cortex is located in the temporal lobe. In this lobe, there is a structure known as Wernicke's area. This is the opposite of Broca's area because it handles the understanding of speech. It is important to note that once sensory information arrives at its primary location in the cortex, it then goes to its respective association cortex where it undergoes further processing (17). In addition, the cortex has two divisions. They are neocortex and allocortex. The former is the most recent cortex in terms of evolution and it helps with higher cognitive functions (18). The latter is the older cortex and deals with more primitive functions. It has two subdivisions: archicortex and paleocortex. Both of them develop "in association with the olfactory system" and it doesn't have a layered structure (19).</span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><br />
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</div>
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/908/flashcards/1849908/png/screen_shot_2012-09-17_at_75637_am1347883157040.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for basal ganglia" border="0" height="271" src="https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/908/flashcards/1849908/png/screen_shot_2012-09-17_at_75637_am1347883157040.png" width="400" /></a>That was the first part of the telencephalon, the second structure would be the basal ganglia. Remember that ganglia are collections of cell bodies outside of the central nervous system (CNS), however, the basal ganglia is an exception because it is located in CNS. It is one of the structures that deal with movement. The structure that deals with memory looks like a seahorse that is why its name is hippocampus (latin for seahorse (20)). Close to the hippocampus is the amygdala (amygdala is latin for almond, it was given this name because of its shape), which is the structure that is responsible for emotions (21). In summary, the telencephalon is made up of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia and the limbic system, which includes the hippocampus and amygdala</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.3icreative.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/forebrain-diencephalon-300x251.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for diencephalon structures" border="0" src="http://www.3icreative.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/forebrain-diencephalon-300x251.jpg" /></a>The second subdivision of the prosencephalon is the diencephalon. This subdivision is made up of several structures. One of them is the thalamus, which is a structure made up of nuclei that are responsible for sending sensory information to its respective cortex (22). Another important structure in the diencephalon would be the hypothalamus. This is responsible for the four F's: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornicating. As you can see this part of the brain is very primitive from an evolutionary perspective because of it functions. The epithalamus is also located in the diencephalon and it is made up of the habenula and the pineal gland (23). The former is involved in motivation and reward (24) and the latter is not where the mind and body interact like Rene Descartes used to believe, but rather it is responsible for segregating melatonin and it regulates the circadian rhythm (25).</span><br />
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<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">C-Shaped Structures</span></h3>
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<a href="https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/develop.gif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for brain during development" border="0" height="320" src="https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/develop.gif" width="257" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">During development, the telencephalon undergoes an incredible expansion in terms of neurogenesis. On average, there are about 250, 000 neurons being developed per minute (22). As a result of this, structures start to develop a c-shape. One of the structures that has </span><span style="font-size: large;">this shape is the cortex, which includes the four lobes that were covered before. Other structures include the ventricles, which are cavities that contain cerebrospinal fluid (22), the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, and the caudate nucleus.</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">References</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">1. </span></span><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.dictionary.com/browse/nerve.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">2. </span></span><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.med.umich.edu/lrc/coursepages/m1/anatomy2010/html/modules/NS_overview_module/NS_Overview_06.html</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">3. https://www.britannica.com/science/brainstem</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">4. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/oculomotor+nerve</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">5. https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/optic_nerve.htm</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">6. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/olfactory+nerve</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">7. http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7603</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK384/</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">9. http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/grossanatomy/h_n/cn/cn1/cn6.htm</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">10. http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/grossanatomy/h_n/cn/cn1/cn7.htm</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">11. http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/grossanatomy/h_n/cn/cn1/cn8.htm</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">12. http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/grossanatomy/h_n/cn/cn1/cn9.htm</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">13. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1875813-overview.</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK387/</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK388/</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">16. https://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_11.html</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11109/</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">18. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/neocortex</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">19. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/archicortex</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">20. https://www.britannica.com/science/hippocampus</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">21. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/amygdala.</span></span><br />
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;">22. "Neuroanatomy text and atlas," by John H. Martin.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">23. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/epithalamus</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">24. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/aneu/2014/862048/</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">25. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15589268</span></div>
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-34975480612051026292016-09-05T20:33:00.000-07:002016-09-07T15:12:25.760-07:00Introduction to Neuroanatomy - Part 2 (The Brain and the Spinal Cord)<div style="text-align: center;">
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The Brain and the Spinal Cord</h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">To learn more about neuroanatomy, please check out: "Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas," by John H. Martin.</span>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Glial Cells</span></h3>
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<a href="https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/supporting-cells-neuroglia-glial-cells-types-classification-microglia-astrocytes-oligodendrocytes-schwann-ependymal-47597814.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for glial cells" border="0" height="355" src="https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/supporting-cells-neuroglia-glial-cells-types-classification-microglia-astrocytes-oligodendrocytes-schwann-ependymal-47597814.jpg" width="400" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">In the last cover, we covered primarily neurons, but the glial cells are also very important in the nervous system. Something important to note is that the same parts in the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) have different names. We will see an example of this with a specialized type of glia cell. They outnumber neurons, however, the exact number is still being debated. One textbook affirms that the ratio is ten to one(1), while another one asserts that it is three to one (2). Whether is one or the other, the fact that there is more glial cells remains true. This might suggest that their function is vital for the nervous system. There are two types of glial cells: Microglia and macroglia. The former acts as immune cells because if there is an infection or damage detected in the central nervous system, this subdivision is in charge of phagocytizing (this means destroying a cell (3), remember that phago- means consuming (4), and cyte- means cell(5)). The latter is a group of cells that provide support or aid neurons with nutrition (1). For example, neurons have something known as the myelin sheath. This helps action potentials reach the end of the neuron in a faster manner and there are some long neurons that without the myelin sheath the action potential would never reach the terminal buttons. The cells that provide the myelin sheath to neurons are macroglia. Remember how we mentioned that the same parts have different names depending whether they are in the central nervous system (CNS) or the peripheral (PNS) one? Well, the cells that myelinate axons in the PNS are called Schwann cells and in the CNS they are called oligodendrocytes. Both of these cells </span><br />
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<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/image.axd?picture=2012%2F9%2FNervous%2BSystem.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for nervous system classification" border="0" src="http://www.news-medical.net/image.axd?picture=2012%2F9%2FNervous%2BSystem.jpg" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: large;">In this post, we will cover the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and the spinal cord. The former is composed of the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem. The other parts of the nervous system will be covered in detail in the following posts. However, I want to cover them in a superficial manner. The other component of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Like stated before the PNS is everything outside the CNS (remember peripheral means outside of (6)). The PNS has two subdivision the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems (ANS). The former is in charge of the skin and the muscles (7) (remember that soma means the body (8)). The latter is in charge of automatic (duh!) actions such as secreting hormones (9). The ANS also has two divisions, they are the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The former is in charge of creating involuntary actions like sweating, however, this is best seen active when stress is experienced. What happens is that epinephrine, also known as adrenaline (10), helps the "flight or fight system" by increasing heart rate, etc (11). The parasympathetic tries to do the opposite by conserving energy (12). A part that is sometimes included in the nervous system is the enteric system (as you can see it is not included in the graph to the left. I'm going to leave a link if you are interested in to explore more about this topic: http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/basics/gi_nervous.html). Another type of macroglia would be an astrocyte, which has a complex range of functions, one of them would be aiding neurons in synaptic transmission (20). They are also an integral part of the blood-brain barrier, as well as helping neurons migrate (1). The last type of macroglia is the ependymal cells. They are in charge of regulating the direction of where the cerebrospinal fluid is going (21).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">The Development of the Central Nervous System</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">If you saw carefully the graph above, you may have noticed that there are certain subdivisions in the brain: the telencephalon, etc. These will be covered in detail in this section, where we will cover the development of the CNS. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for human embryo and its 3 layers" height="148" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Germ_layers.jpg" width="640" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Neural_crest.svg/2000px-Neural_crest.svg.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for neural tube and neural crest" border="0" height="400" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Neural_crest.svg/2000px-Neural_crest.svg.png" width="332" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">The embryo is composed of three layers: the endoderm, the mesoderm, and the ectoderm. They are the inner, middle, and external layers, respectively, in the embryo. The neural plate is a part of the ectoderm that later develops into the neural tube and the neural crest (13). The cells from the latter move to eventually create different types of cells such as neurons and glial; it is important to note that wherever they go will affect the type of cell they will become (14). The neural tube will develop into the brain and the spinal cord (15). The neural plate folds itself in order to create the neural tube. There are several points of view in order to study the brain in terms of orientation. The first one is rostral, which refers to a frontal view, caudate, which refers to a rear perspective, dorsal, which refers to looking at things from above, and ventral, which refers to looking at things from a lower perspective (16). The rostral part of the neural tube becomes the cerebral hemispheres. A developmental problem in the neural tube is anencephaly, which occurs when the neural tube does not close all the way (17). The caudal part of the tube becomes the spinal cord. A similar developmental problem in the caudal part of the neural tube is spina bifida. This is when the spinal cord does not close fully (18).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">The Neural Tube and Its Vesicles</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The neural tube develops three major vesicles at a certain stage. I will first provide the developmental names, but I will also include names that are easier to remember. They are the prosencephalon, also known as the forebrain, the mesencephalon, also known as the midbrain, and the rhombencephalon, also known as the hindbrain (19). The prosencephalon has two subdivisions. They are the telencephalon, which later develops into the cerebral hemispheres, and the diencephalon. The mesencephalon, which is the midbrain, has no subdivision. And the rhombencephalon, which is the hindbrain, has like the forebrain two subdivisions. They are the metencephalon, which later develops into the pons and cerebellum, and the myelencephalon, which later becomes the medulla oblongata. The part of the neural tube without the vesicles later becomes the spinal cord.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Side Note</span></h4>
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<span style="font-size: large;">I want to go into more detail about how the same body parts have different names depending whether they are in the CNS or PNS. For example, a collection of cells in the PNS is known as a ganglion, but it is called a nucleus in the central nervous system. However, there are exceptions like the basal ganglia, which is located in the central nervous system. Another example would be tract and nerve. They are basically the same thing, nevertheless, the name of the former is different because it is located in the CNS, while the nerve is located in the PNS. Keep in mind that this happens with other parts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The Spinal Cord</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><img alt="Image result for developing spinal cord" src="http://pocketdentistry.com/wp-content/uploads/285/image007555.jpeg" height="264" width="640" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Once the neural tube closes, the spinal cord starts to form. Then, a process called lamination starts to occur. It has this name because it obtains three layers. They are the marginal, the mantle, and the ependymal layer. The first one is filled with white matter, it looks like that because of the collection of axons present there. The second mantle has a darker appearance and it is known as gray matter. The last layer is the ependymal one. This is a layer made up of epithelial cells, which are glial cells that create the epithelial lining of the "brain and the central canal of the spinal cord"(21).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Then, when the neural crest stops developing, we are left with the peripheral nervous system. Like mentioned before this includes the Schwann cells, which are the glial cells that provide the myelin sheath to neurons (remember that the ones in the CNS are called oligodendrocytes). This also includes things outside the spinal cord like the dorsal root ganglion cell, but we will cover more of this later. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">In the mantle layer, which can be observed in the picture above, there are two zones where there is a rapid increase of cells. These two zones are called the alar and basal plate (both can also be observed in the picture above). Both plates become the dorsal and ventral horn, respectively. The horns can be seen in the picture down below. The horns are in charge of moving information. The dorsal horn moves sensory information up to the brain, and the ventral horn moves motor info down the spinal cord. The sulcus limitans is a groove that separates the basal and the alar plates.</span><br />
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<img alt="Image result for dorsal and ventral horns" src="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/86/a0/8c/86a08c876377769ca8979d2989833f62.jpg" /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Resources</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. "Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas" by John H. Martin</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10869/</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/phagocytize</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">4. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/phago-</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">5. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/-cyte</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">6. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/peripheral</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">7. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/somatic+nervous+system</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">8. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/soma</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">9. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomic%20nervous%20system</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">10. http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3286</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">11. https://www.britannica.com/science/human-nervous-system/The-autonomic-nervous-system#ref942317</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">12. https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/parasympathetic_nervous_system.htm</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">13. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/neural+plate</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">14. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10065/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10080/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">16. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010/mangels/neuro/navigation/navigation.html</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">17. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/anencephaly.html</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">18. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/spinabifida/facts.html</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">19. http://www.med.umich.edu/lrc/coursepages/m1/embryology/embryo/08nervoussystem.htm</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2799634/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">21. https://www.britannica.com/science/ependymal-cell</span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-70849358588609338512016-09-03T11:01:00.000-07:002016-09-03T11:01:17.124-07:00Introduction to Neuroanatomy - Part 1 (The Nervous System)<h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">The brain, the spinal cord, and everything else.</span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">To learn more about neuroanatomy, please check out: "Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas," by John H. Martin.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Neuroanatomy, and psychology in general, can be studied with different perspectives, I will cover some of them in the following bullet points.</span><br />
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<li><span style="font-size: large;">Anatomical Perspective: This refers to the structure of body parts</span></li>
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<li><span style="font-size: large;">Cytoarchitectonic Perspective:This refers to the study of the tissue in terms of cellular structure (1).</span></li>
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<li><span style="font-size: large;">Phylogenetic Perspective: This refers to the comparative study of living organisms in terms of their evolutionary history (2).</span></li>
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<li><span style="font-size: large;">Functional Perspective: This refers to the point of view that studies a specific body part, in this case, the brain, in terms of functions.</span></li>
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<li><span style="font-size: large;">Ontogenetic Perspective: This refers to the study of a part of the brain in terms of its development (3).</span></li>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Using these perspectives, or other ones that are not mentioned here, we can look at the brain in terms of its different organizations. One of them would be a hierarchical approach, which refers to how the body parts are "connected" so they can interact with each. For example, when you see something, let's say a soccer ball, coming your way. The light reaches the receptors in your eyes. Then, a process known as transduction occurs. This is when a type of information, usually sensory info, gets "translated" or converted into another type of info, usually electric potentials for the brain (4). The signal then reaches the thalamus, which then sends a signal to the occipital lobe, which is the primary visual cortex (5). So as you can see this point of view follows how each part interacts with each other in a chronological sequence of events.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for eyes to the occipital lobe" src="http://www.rhsmpsychology.com/Handouts/Visual_pathway.jpg" height="473" width="640" /> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Cells of the Nervous System</span></h3>
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<a href="http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neuron.gif" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neuron.gif" height="228" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">There are two main cells in the nervous system. They are the neuron and the glia cell (6). I'm going to use the same material I used to explain these cells in my old psychopharmacology post (if you want to check that out, please check it out by clicking here: http://hbookreviews.blogspot.com/2016/07/introduction-to-psychopharmacology-part_17.html). </span><span style="font-size: large;">The nervous system has two main divisions: The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The former is composed of the brain and the spinal cord, the peripheral includes everything else. Each division has subsets, but we will cover each of them later. Neurons are located in the central nervous system (CNS) and their main function is to process information (7). As you can see some of the parts of the neurons are in the picture to the right, we will cover them later.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">The physiology of neurons depends on their specialized function. An example of this would be the difference between sensory neurons and the motor ones. The former receives info from places such as the skin and sends it to the CNS (8), the latter sends information to the muscles so they can move. There are other types, but I don't want to cover them fully, an example of this would be interneurons, which are located between a sensory and a motor neuron (9).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><i>Fun Fact: It is estimated that there are around 100 billion neurons in the brain (9)</i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/synapse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image result for synapse" border="0" src="http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/synapse.jpg" height="368" width="400" /></a><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Let us go back to neurons and talk about their parts. The structure of a neuron depends on its function, however, there are similitudes between all of them. These include the soma, which is the cell body of a neuron, the dendrites, which look like tree branches and receive information, an axon, which is the part of the neuron that sends info. There is another special structure called the synapse. It is composed of three parts: The synaptic cleft, which is the space between the terminal button and a dendrite of a neuron, the presynaptic cell, which is the neuron before the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic cell, which is the neuron after the cleft. </span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 21.56px;">Think of a neuron functioning as a telephone, the dendrites is where you hear the person speak to you (although there are some exceptions where the dendrites send signals, but this is uncommon) and the terminal button is where the microphone is for you to speak is located. They communicate with each other with chemicals known as neurotransmitters, we will learn more about them later.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">The most common type of neuron is called multipolar (10). This has one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma. A bipolar neuron has an axon from one side and a dendrite from the other.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Bipolar Neuron</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 21.56px;">Another type of cell is the unipolar neuron. This cell has only one stalk that divides itself into an axon and the dendrites. Bipolar cells are usually found in sensory systems such as vision. Unipolar neurons usually work with somatosensory functions such as feeling pain and temperature. Both of them receive information from the physical world and send it into the CNS.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Like it was stated before, neurons communicate with each other using neurotransmitters. These are released by the terminal buttons when an action potential happens (We will cover this later). A neurotransmitter is a chemical that has an effect on another neuron. Remember how the synaptic cleft is the space between a terminal button and a dendrite? Well, when the neurotransmitter is released it travels in this space in search of a receptor, which can usually be found on a dendrite of another cell either by inhibiting or exciting it. This is how neurons communicate.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Specialized Cells</span></span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Neurons are considered specialized cells for three reasons. The first one is that they are polarized. This refers to the fact that neurons are negatively charged on the inside. This allows them to communicate via action potentials (We will talk specifically about this later). The second reason is that they are excitable. This means that neurons are able to change their charge. (Our brain works on electrical activity generated by chemicals). The third reason is that they are modulatory. Each neuron is able to communicate with many other neurons. In other words, every thought we have, every movement we make, every behavior, can be observed in the brain in the form of electric activity across neurons. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Resources </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/cytoarchitectonic</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phylogeny</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">3. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ontogeny</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">4. http://psychologydictionary.org/transduction/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">5. http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/lobes.html</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">6. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010/mangels/neuro/neurocells/neurocells.html</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">7. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/neurons_intro/neurons_intro.php</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">8. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.britannica.com/science/sensory-neuron</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">9. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter02.html</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span> <span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">10. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Physiology of Behavior by Neil Carson</span></span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-10239958409612422442016-08-01T00:17:00.000-07:002019-04-30T22:42:41.603-07:00Psychoanalysis as a Replacement of Ritalin<h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">Psychoanalysis as a Replacement of Stimulants that are used as Treatment for ADHD</span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The purpose of this essay is to explore the efficacy of stimulants as a form of treatment for attention deficit disorder (ADD) in children. In addiction, methylphenidate, which is the most common pharmacological drug prescribed to treat ADD, will be compared to therapy, specifically psychoanalysis, to investigate whether alternative forms of treatment should be given any new consideration.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Before exploring the research regarding the use of stimulants, it is important to describe what ADD is and the medication used to treat it. The DSM-V defines the disorder as “a repetitive pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development” (DSM-5, 2013). Unlike other disorders </span><span style="font-size: large; text-indent: 0.5in;">that tend to have an onset in early adulthood</span><span style="font-size: large; text-indent: 0.5in;">, such as schizophrenia (schizophrenia, n. d.), ADD or ADHD is usually diagnosed in childhood. Moreover, research suggests that drugs can affect children differently compared to adults. For example, a study found that antidepressants double the risk of suicide ideation for children compared to placebos (antidepressant medications for children and adolescents, n. d.). Other papers have found that the use of antidepressants in adolescents change normal dopaminergic signaling. This highlights the importance in exploring the use of stimulants as a form of treatment for ADD in children. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">As stated before, methylphenidate, also known as Ritalin, is the most common medication used to treat attention deficit with hyperactivity disorder (ADHD Treatment, n. d.). Since it is the most used stimulant, this will be the medication that is compared to therapy, specifically psychoanalysis. Moreover, its main mechanism of action is to increase dopamine in the central nervous system by binding to the reuptake protein. The increased presence of dopamine will adumbrate the abuse potential of the drug, which will be discussed later.</span></div>
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<a href="http://ste.india.com/sites/default/files/2014/12/17/303774-cocaine.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://ste.india.com/sites/default/files/2014/12/17/303774-cocaine.jpg" height="227" width="400" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">It is important to note that there are certain similarities and differences between abused stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines and methylphenidate. One of those similarities is in terms of the mechanisms of action. Specifically, cocaine and Ritalin work by binding to dopamine transporters, which blocks the reuptake process (How does cocaine produce its effects, n. d.). This ends up increasing the levels of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, which occurs independently of an action potential (Calipari, E. S., & Ferris, M. J., 2013). </span><span style="font-size: large; text-indent: 0.5in;">Another similitude is that cocaine and methylphenidate compete for the same type of receptors, bind in the striatum, and have on average the same affinity to said receptors (Volkow, et al., 1995). In addition, there is an agreement among researchers that amphetamines have the same pharmacological effects as methylphenidate (Hoffman B. B., & Lefkowitz R. J., 1996; McEvoy G. K. 1999). Moreover, Ritalin has some of the same effects as the two drugs of abuse mentioned before when the administration is intranasal. It's important to mention that abnormal post-synaptic receptor activation by dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, which is commonly associated with feelings of pleasure, is present in drug addiction. However, this is also seen in non-addicts who consume an addictive substance, which suggests that feelings of pleasure caused by the abnormal levels of dopamine activation is not enough to consider it as addiction. Instead, feelings of craving and compulsive intake have to be present. Moreover, some areas of the brain thought to be involved in these two components of addiction are the Orbital and the Medial Prefrontal Cortex. These two areas of the brain are active in individuals who are addicted to cocaine after using it, but not in non-addicted individuals who consume it. In addition, when methylphenidate is given to cocaine addicts, those two areas of the brain are active, but not in controls. In fact, when cocaine addicts received methylphenidate, it induced cravings for, both, methylphenidate and cocaine (Volkow, et al., 2005).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Even though it has the same mechanism of action as cocaine, it has less of an abuse potential because of its half-life, which is the measurement in which drugs are broken down. In fact, it has been proposed as a form of treatment for cocaine addiction, in the form of replacement therapy. Moreover, the importance of exploring methylphenidate becomes clear when we look at the amount of prescriptions given to children. In the United States, there are at least six million people who are prescribed Ritalin for their ADHD and the rate is increasing. This becomes alarming when we see that a drug that has a potential for abuse is being prescribed to a large population, especially of children. In fact, reports have surfaced of people who abuse this drug (Jaffe S. L., 1991).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">As stated before, the efficacy of psychoanalysis will be evaluated for the treatment of attention deficit disorder. A common misconception involving Freud and his ideas is that they cannot be studied empirically or they have, but they have been disproved. Nevertheless, the opposite of said statement is correct as it will become evident by the empirical evidence supporting psychoanalysis. The first study to be used, compared psychoanalysis, as well as cognitive behavioral therapy with and without methylphenidate in regards to the treatment of ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (Laezer, 2015).</span></div>
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<a href="https://cdn.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/styles/image-article_inline_full/public/blogs/31836/2011/01/54292-44945.jpg?itok=txhqmY0W" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://cdn.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/styles/image-article_inline_full/public/blogs/31836/2011/01/54292-44945.jpg?itok=txhqmY0W" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Follow-up was 37.6 months in the psychoanalysis group and 38.6 months for the behavioral therapy with methylphenidate group. In addition, it is important to mention that the psychoanalytic sessions ended, on average, a year before follow-up while children undergoing behavioral therapy were still in therapy and the majority of the group undergoing behavioral therapy and methylphenidate were still taking the drug. This suggests that psychoanalysis has an advantage over the other forms of treatment in terms of either acting faster or making individuals non-dependent on treatment, but more evidence is needed before making this assertion. This is an important fact since patients taking medication usually develop either tolerance or sensitivity to it, which increases the possibility of experiencing side effects or long-term effects of their drugs. In addition, in all groups during follow-up symptoms of ODD, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention were highly reduced. In other words, </span><span style="font-size: large; text-indent: 0.5in;">patients that had finished their psychoanalytic therapy had the symptoms reduced as those that were still taking methylphenidate, which suggests that patients who were using Ritalin had to continue its use, but psychoanalytic therapy was a one-time deal. Moreover, there were also secondary outcome measures taken from the parent's perspective in which all groups' outcomes were equal besides one criteria where patients undertaking psychoanalysis improved significantly in term of internalizing problems. To summarize so far, this study lends support to the notion that psychoanalysis can reduce the symptoms of hyperactivity, attention deficit, and oppositional disorder symptoms as behavioral therapy with medication. Additionally, a common notion about psychoanalysis is that it takes longer when compared to other forms of treatments, but the study found that the medication treatment took on average 29.6 months and psychoanalysis took 25.9 months instead.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">In conclusion, methylphenidate is a drug that has the potential to be abused since it acts similarly to cocaine. Taking this into account plus other characteristics such as side effects, long-term effects, etc., it is important to evaluate other treatments, especially since its prescription rates have grown exponentially and it is being prescribed to children and adolescents, which are going through an important neurodevelopmental stage at that age. Moreover, psychoanalysis is another tool that can be used in the treatment of ADHD and should replace methylphenidate for several reasons. The first one is that it does not have side effects and it does not have abuse potential like methylphenidate does. Additionally, it works faster than the most prescribed stimulant. Moreover, on one hand, once individuals have finished psychoanalytic therapy, the effects of this form of treatment will remain present. On the other hand, most patients have to keep taking medication to be able to manage or reduced the symptoms. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">References</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/child-and-adolescent-mental-health/antidepressant-medications-for-children-and-adolescents-information-for-parents-and-caregivers.shtml</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - Treatment. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/Pages/Treatment.aspx.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Calipari, E. S., & Ferris, M. J. (2013). Amphetamine Mechanisms and Actions at the Dopamine Terminal Revisited. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience</i>, <i>33</i>(21), 8923–8925. http://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1033-13.2013 </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><i>Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5</i>. (2013). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Hoffman BB, & Lefkowitz RJ (1996). Catecholamines, sympathomimetic drugs, and adrenergic receptor antagonists. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB, et al, eds. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 221–224.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">How does cocaine produce its effects? (n.d.). Retrieved August 01, 2016, from https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/cocaine/how-does-cocaine-produce-its-effects.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Jaffe SL. (1991) Intranasal abuse of prescribed methylphenidate by an alcohol and drug abusing adolescent with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 30:773–775.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Katrin Luise Laezer (2015) Effectiveness of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy and Behavioral Therapy Treatment in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 14:2, 111-128, DOI: 10.1080/15289168.2015.1014991.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">McEvoy G. K. (1999). American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information. Bethesda, Md: American Society of Health-Systems Pharmacists. 2038–2040.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Ritalin and Cocaine: The Connection and the Controversy. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/ritalin/</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Schizophrenia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia-booklet-12-2015/index.shtml#pub3</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Volkow ND, Ding YS, Fowler JS, et al. (1995) Is methylphenidate like cocaine? studies on their pharmacokinetics and distribution in the human brain. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 52:456–463.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Volkow, N. D., Wang, G., Ma, Y., Fowler, J., Wong, C., Ding, Y., . . . Kalivas, P. (2005). Activation of Orbital and Medial Prefrontal Cortex by Methylphenidate in Cocaine-Addicted Subjects But Not in Controls: Relevance to Addiction. Journal of Neuroscience, 25(15), 3932-3939. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0433-05.2005</span><br />
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-27379177856142768002016-07-24T23:27:00.000-07:002016-07-24T23:27:39.609-07:00Introduction to Psychopharmacology - Part 4 (Action Potentials)<h2>
Action Potentials - How Neurons Communicate with each other. </h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">To learn more about psychopharmacology, please check out "Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior," by Jerrold S. Meyer and Linda F. Quenzer.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Now that we have talked about neurons individually, we are going explain how they communicate between each other. We mentioned in the last post that they do it by action potentials. Today we are going into detail of what are these, how they work, and why they work. There are two important features in this process: electric charge and chemicals, specifically sodium, potassium, and calcium. </span></div>
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<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_en.svg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="464" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_en.svg" width="640" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">An action potential is the electricity traveling inside a neuron (remember that our brain works on electricity). It starts at the axon hillock, which is the part located before the axon and after the soma, and ends in the terminal button. When it reaches its end, neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that send messages across neurons (1), are released from the terminal button. After that they bind on the receptors of another neuron (receptors are usually on the dendrites, but the can be in other parts of the neuron). They either inhibit a neuron, and thus stop it from firing another action potential, or they can excite the neuron, making it fire another action potential. This is a basic description of how neurons are modulatory, but the real process is much more complicated.</span></div>
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<a href="http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/synapse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://antranik.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/synapse.jpg" height="295" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Before starting adumbrating the process of an action potential it is important to describe what the synapse is. There are three parts that are important: the presynaptic cell, the post-synaptic cell, and the presynaptic cleft. The latter is the space between neurons. It is important to state that neurons never touch each other, there is always a small space between them. The presynaptic neuron is the neuron that is above or before the synaptic cleft, it is the terminal button pointing at the receptors of the other cell. The post-synaptic cell is the neuron that is after or below the synaptic cleft, it is the receptor side that receives the neurotransmitters (NTs). Thus, the presynaptic neuron releases NTs, they travel through the synaptic cleft and they bind to the receptors on the post-synaptic cell.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">We already mentioned the three important chemicals for action potentials: potassium, sodium, and calcium. The former is concentrated more on the inside of a neuron; it is what gives the neuron a negative charge. When neurons are not firing, which is called the resting membrane potential, they have a negative charge, which is a critical component in order to fire action potentials (we will cover more of this later). Sodium is concentrated more on the outside of the cell and it gives it a positive charge. This means that the inside of a neuron is negatively charged and positively on its exterior. Calcium is needed so that neurotransmitters can be released.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">There are two types of channels in the membrane of a neuron. They are ligand-gated and voltage-gated channels. The former opens up when a ligand, which can be a neurotransmitter or a drug, binds to the receptors of the channel. The latter opens up when a specific charge is detected. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">We already talked about how neurons have a negative charge. Their resting potential is -70 millivolts (mV). This means that neurons are polarized when they are resting (remember this is one of the reasons why neurons are specialized cells).</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;"> Neurotransmitters can do two things when they bind: They can either excite the neuron or inhibiting it from firing another action potential. These are called excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) (2). EPSPs start to depolarize the neuron. If they do not change the charge to -55 mV an action potential is not fired. These are called failed initiations. However, if it does reach the threshold of -55 mV, depolarization starts to occur. This means that sodium channels open up and sodium enters the cell. It does this for two reasons. The first one has to do with the electric charge of a neuron. Remember that in chemistry positives attract. Therefore, because the inside of a neuron is negative, the sodium, which has a positive charge, tries to enter it once the sodium channels open up.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;"> This is why it is important that neurons have a negative charge in order to fire an action potential. Once the cell depolarizes an action potential is fired. When the neuron reaches a positive charge, the sodium channels close and the potassium one opens up, and by potassium leaving the cell the neuron starts to repolarize. Potassium channels are not efficient, in the sense that they know when to close up. For this reason, the cell hyperpolarizes. This means that it obtains a more negative charge than when it is at the resting potential. During this period, which is also called absolute refractory period, actions potentials cannot be fired. The potassium channels close at this point and a sodium and potassium pump return the cell to the resting membrane potential. As you saw the first two channels were voltage dependent, they needed a specific charge to be opened. This means that action potentials don't really require energy, however, the sodium and potassium pump does and it uses ATP as its source of energy. When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons, voltage-dependent calcium channels open up and help neurotransmitters release. They in turn either inhibit the next neuron from firing an action potential or they excite it and the process repeats itself over and over again. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/educational-resources/brain-basics/brain-basics.shtml</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11117/</span></div>
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-26746891631388124242016-07-17T22:28:00.000-07:002016-07-17T22:28:46.057-07:00Introduction to Psychopharmacology - Part 3 (Neurons)<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: large;">To learn more about psychopharmacology, please check out "Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior," by Jerrold S. Meyer and Linda F. Quenzer.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: Times New Roman, Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: large; line-height: 25.2px;">Before continuing with our discussion about drugs and their effect on behavior we have to talk about the brain. Now, there are two reasons why this discussion is essential. The first one is that the brain is essential in behavior. For example, the mouth is needed to speak, but Broca's area also forms an important part for the production of speech. Moreover, the legs are needed to walk, however, the basal ganglia is necessary for movement. As you can see, the brain is a required component for every behavior and if the part brain is damaged the behavior ceases to exist. Thus, the brain is necessary for behavior. The second reason is that the brain is sufficient for the study of drugs and their effects. We know that behavior, or people in general, are a complex result of several factors influencing each other. We could study variables like diet, sex, and age. But because all of these factors have in the end an impact on the brain, it ends up being sufficient for the study of psychopharmacology.</span></div>
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<a href="http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neuron.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: black; float: left; font-size: 15.4px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" height="285" src="http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neuron.gif" style="background: rgb(240, 249, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 249, 255); box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0980392) 1px 1px 5px; box-sizing: border-box; max-width: 100%; padding: 5px; position: relative;" width="400" /></a><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">We'll start the discussion of the brain by focusing on the structures of the nervous system. Let's start with neurons. They are cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that process information (1). There are several types of neurons such as sensory neurons, which receive info from places such as the skin and sends it to the CNS (2), motor neurons, which send information to the muscles so they can move, and interneurons, which are located between a sensory and a motor neuron (4).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><i><span style="font-size: large;">Fun Fact: It is estimated that there are around 100 billion neurons in the brain (4)</span></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">We already talked about the CNS, but what is it? Well, to put it simply, it is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. If you noticed that there is a CENTRAL nervous system, then there should be one not so central. This is called peripheral nervous system (peripheral means outside), and it's every part of the nervous system that is outside of the brain and spinal cord.</span></span><br /><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Let us go back to neurons and talk about their parts. The structure of a neuron depends on its function, however, there are similitudes between all of them. These include the soma, which is the cell body of a neuron, the dendrites, which look like tree branches and receive information, an axon, which is the part of the neuron that sends info, the synapse, which is the space between a terminal button and a dendrite. Think of a neuron functioning as a telephone, the dendrites is where you hear the person speak to you (although there are some exceptions where they send signals, but this is uncommon) and the terminal button is where the microphone for you to speak is located.</span></span><br /><span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: medium;"><br /></span><h3 style="margin: 0px; position: relative;">
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<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The most common type of neuron is called multipolar (3). This has one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma. A bipolar neuron has an axon from one side and a dendrite from the other.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; font-size: large; line-height: 21.56px;">Another type is the unipolar neuron. This cell has only one stalk that divides into the axon and the dendrites. Bipolar cells are usually found in sensory systems such as vision. Unipolar neurons usually work with somatosensory functions such as feeling pain and temperature (5). Both of them receive information from the physical world and send it into the CNS.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">One way of sending information is with neurotransmitters. They are released by the terminal buttons when an action potential happens. A neurotransmitter is a chemical that has an effect on another neuron (remember how the synapse is the space between a terminal button and a dendrite? Well, when the neurotransmitter is released it travels in this space in search of a receptor usually on a dendrite of another cell) either by inhibiting or exciting it. This is how neurons communicate.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Neurons are considered specialized cells for three reasons. The first one is that they are polarized. This refers to the fact that neurons are negatively charged on the inside. This allows them to communicate via action potentials (We will talk specifically about this later). The second reason is that they are excitable. This means that neurons are able to change their charge. (Our brain works on electrical activity generated by chemicals). The third reason is that they are modulatory. Each neuron is able to communicate with many other neurons. In other words, every thought we have, every movement we make, every behavior, can be observed in the brain in the form of electric activity across neurons. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;">1. http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/neurons_intro/neurons_intro.php</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;"></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;">2. http://www.britannica.com/science/sensory-neuron</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;"></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;">http://vanat.cvm.umn.edu/neurLab1/neuron.html</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;"></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;">3. Physiology of Behavior by Neil Carson</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; line-height: 21.56px; text-align: start;"></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: times, "times new roman", serif; text-align: start;">4. http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s2/chapter02.html</span></span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-87708416108589116762016-07-05T21:23:00.000-07:002016-07-07T22:11:50.106-07:00Introduction to Psychopharmacology - Part 2 (How are Drugs Processed?)<h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">The Processing of Drugs</span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Drug action does not only depend on the chemical structure of a drug but also on factors like the rate in which it can be absorbed by the body; this factor is known as bioavailability (1). There are five factors that contribute to bioavailability that constitute the pharmacokinetic elements of drug action (2). Pharmacokinetics is the study of how drugs are absorbed, dispersed, processed, and eliminated from the body (3). The five factors are:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. Routes of administration.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">This is the way in which drugs enter the body. There are two major divisions in which a drug can be administered: Enteral, which refers to passing thorugh the intestine or gastrointestinal tract (4), and parentenal, which is all the methods in which the drug do not passes through the gastrointestinal tract (5). We will cover five methods of administration.</span></div>
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<a href="http://www.clodrosome.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Intraperitoneal-Injection_blank.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.clodrosome.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Intraperitoneal-Injection_blank.jpg" height="224" width="320" /></a><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">The first one is by means of injection. We will cover several types of injections, the first one being intravenous (IV) injection. This one goes right in to the bloodstream so the drug effects are instantaneous (6). The second one is the peritoneal injection, which is administered in the peritoneal cavity (duh!). This is a semipermeable wall in the abdomen (7). The next injection is intramuscular, which is delivered into the muscles and the last one is the subcutaneous injection, which is delivered under the skin (8). The cartoon to the right depicts a peritoneal injection.</span></div>
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<a href="http://nootriment.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/noopept-sublingual.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: black; float: left; font-size: large; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" src="http://nootriment.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/noopept-sublingual.jpg" style="background: rgb(240, 249, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 249, 255); box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0980392) 1px 1px 5px; padding: 5px; position: relative;" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">The second route to administer a drug is by oral administration. Researchers don't usually use this method for two reasons. The first one is that if the experimenter is dealing with animals, they (the animals, not the researchers) might not want to consume the drug because of its flavor. The other reason is that the chemical can be destroyed by a stomach acid (9). Nevertheless, this method can be used with humans if it is administered with a sublingual method (This means placed under the tongue). In this way, the drug enters the bloodstream, thus, not being affected by the stomach acid.</span><br />
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<a href="http://www.atitesting.com/ati_next_gen/skillsmodules/content/Medication-Administration-2/images/Meds2_rectal_graphic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; color: black; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" src="http://www.atitesting.com/ati_next_gen/skillsmodules/content/Medication-Administration-2/images/Meds2_rectal_graphic.jpg" height="176" style="background: rgb(240, 249, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 249, 255); box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0980392) 1px 1px 5px; padding: 5px; position: relative;" width="200" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 25.2px;">The third method is called intrarectal and it is administered through the anus (10). I hope you can understand why I didn't put a real photo here. It is important to note that because of they way it is introduced into the body, many researchers opt out of his method. Nevertheless, it is commonly used with humans. </span><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Inhalation is the fourth method. Drugs like marijuana and nicotine are usually smoked (9). This method is efficient in the sense that a lesser dose is needed for the same effect when compared to the other methods such as oral administration (7). The last method is called topical. This is applied to surfaces of the body such as the skin (8), colon, vagina, urethra, conjunctiva of the eye, or the nasopharynx (2).</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Each route of administration has advantages and disadvantages. For example, taking drugs orally makes it safer for the person (it avoids the use of needles), but it has a slower rate of absorption. In addition, taking a drug intravenously makes it reach the brain faster, resulting in quicker drug effects, but it is harder to self-administer and it requires sterile needles. Moreover, using an intramuscular injection creates a slow and steady rate of absorption, but it irritates the person at the site of the injection and it also requires sterile needles (2). </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">2. Absorption and Distribution.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">This refers to the way in which the drugs enter the blood plasma and is transported throughout the body (2).</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">3. Binding</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">This refers to the way that the drug in the blood plasma attaches to receptors or when it is stored temporarily in bone or fat (2).</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">4. Inactivation</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">This process, which is also known as biotransformation, is the way in which a drug becomes inactive "through a chemical change, usually by metabolic processes in the liver." (2)</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">5. Excretion</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">This refers to the way in which the drug is eliminated from the body through urine feces, saliva, and sweat (2). The most common one being urine.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Sources</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bioavailability</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; text-align: center;">"Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Bran, and Behavior," by Jerrold S. Meyer and Linda F. Quenzer.</span> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pharmacokinetics</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">4. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/enteral</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">5. https://www.britannica.com/topic/parenteral-administration</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">6. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002383.htm</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">7. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189662/</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">8. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/subcutaneous</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">9. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">"Physiology of Behavior" by Neil Carson</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">10, </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6126289</span></span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-26741806550089801772016-07-03T23:18:00.000-07:002016-07-17T20:02:38.402-07:00Introduction to Drugs and behavior/Psychopharmacology - Part 1<h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">Psychopharmacology - What is it?</span></h2>
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<iframe frameborder="0" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" scrolling="no" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?ServiceVersion=20070822&OneJS=1&Operation=GetAdHtml&MarketPlace=US&source=ac&ref=tf_til&ad_type=product_link&tracking_id=honboorev03-20&marketplace=amazon&region=US&placement=087893510X&asins=087893510X&linkId=b3aa5656396bf08649bf3ee3ed3a17cd&show_border=true&link_opens_in_new_window=true&price_color=333333&title_color=0066c0&bg_color=ffffff" style="height: 240px; width: 120px;"> </iframe>
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<span style="font-size: large;">To learn more about psychopharmacology, please check out "Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior," by Jerrold S. Meyer and Linda F. Quenzer.</span></div>
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<a href="https://qzprod.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/meal-pills.jpg?quality=80&strip=all&w=1600" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://qzprod.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/meal-pills.jpg?quality=80&strip=all&w=1600" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Psychopharmacology is defined as the study of how drugs affect mood, thinking, and behavior (1). Thus, in this introduction, we will explore the effects and the processing of drugs from a biopsychological perspective. </span><span style="font-size: large;">First, we have to define some of the terminology. We will start with what a drug is. In one of part of our introduction to biopsychology (http://hbookreviews.blogspot.com/2016/04/introduction-to-psychobiology-part-4.html), we learned that a drug is a chemical that comes from the outside of our bodies and changes the normal functions of the cells when taken in low doses (2). </span><span style="font-size: large;">The changes produced on a molecular level when a drug binds to the receptor of a neuron are called drug action (3). But the changes that occur on a physiological and/or psychological level are called drug effects. To give you an example that will mark the differences between drug action and drug effect we will cover two drugs: atropine and morphine. The former affects the eye by dilatating the pupil (this is the drug effect) when applied to the eye muscles of the iris (this would be the site of the drug action). Morphine also has the same drug effect (widening the pupil), but not the same site of drug action (nothing happens if applied to the eye, but the drug effect occurs when the morphine is taken internally). We will cover more specific drug effects later. Right now we have to explore four branches of effects. They are: </span></div>
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<li><span style="font-size: large;">Therapeutic effects: These are desired physiological or psychological changes. For example, when a teenager takes an antidepressant, he or she expects that some of the symptoms that belong to major depressive disorder disappear.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Side effects: These are all the changes that were not therapeutic. In other words, the undesired changes in the body and mental processes. To use the example above, side effects would be how the risk of suicide doubles for teenagers when they take an antidepressant rather than a placebo (4).</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Specific drug effects: These are effects that are dependent on the physiology of the person or animal.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Nonspecific drug effects: These are the effects that instead of depending on the biochemistry of an individual, they rely on the individual's background. An example of something that depends greatly on an individual's background instead of the physiology of the person is a placebo (this is a sugar pill). This pill can have therapeutic and side effects that belong to other drugs, even if it the placebo does not have the biochemical interaction that causes the other drugs to produce those effects.</span></li>
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<a href="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/0e/13/56/0e13567f5a27c0b97ac7635ab63363a4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/0e/13/56/0e13567f5a27c0b97ac7635ab63363a4.jpg" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Placebos are important because they are used to understand how much of the drug effects are caused by the individual's expectations and how much by the biochemical interaction of the drug. Thus, when researchers do an experiment with drugs (with drugs, not on drugs), or an experiment in general, they divide their test subjects into at least two groups: control and experimental groups. The former gets the placebo and the latter the drug, but neither groups is aware of what they were given. Because of the influence of the placebo and other factors, psychopharmacologists usually engage in a type of study called double blind procedure. This is similar to the set up of the experiment mentioned above. However, in this case, neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group received the drug or the placebo. This helps eliminate the expectations that influence test results by both parties.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">Feel free to leave a comment and don't forget to subscribe by email!</span><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Sources</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. </span><span style="font-size: large; text-align: center;">"Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the Bran, and Behavior," by Jerrold S. Meyer and Linda F. Quenzer.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: large;">2. </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">"Physiology of Behavior" by Neil Carson</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; line-height: 25.2px;"><span style="font-size: large;">3. </span></span><span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;">https://www.britannica.com/topic/drug-action</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , "times" , "freeserif" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 25.2px;">4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2799109/</span></span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-73160087078632760142016-06-28T20:12:00.000-07:002018-06-27T01:56:23.688-07:00"What is Psychology?" - Introduction to Psychology (Part 1)<h2>
Psychology - What is it?</h2>
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<a href="https://mettelray.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="220" src="https://mettelray.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/1.jpg" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Many people have heard the word <i>psychology </i>in movies or TV shows. Usually, the person representing the field is a clinical psychologist, which is someone who gives therapy. But is this all psychologists do? And would this mean that psychology is the field of mental help?</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Definition</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The short answer for the questions above is no. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Why is it not the study of the mind? Well, since it is a science, all of its information has to be based on research and the mind has never been proven to exist. In fact, since the 1920s when the school of behaviorism arose only the study of behavior was used because it was the only thing that could be observed or study objectively. Then, in 1960, the cognitive revolution came and there was evidence of mental processes. But if there is evidence of mental processes wouldn't this mean that there is a mind? No, because a process is not proof of the existence of what we think may cause it and vice-versa. For example, chairs have legs and don't run and computer programs run but don't have legs.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Careers in psychology</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">There are two major categories of psychologists: those who conduct research, and those who applied said research. Both of these categories exist on every branch of psychology, which is not only limited to clinical. Let us explore a few of them.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Biopsychology: The study of how the body influences our behavior and our mental processes and vice-versa.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Clinical psychology: This branch refers to therapists that help people who have mental disorders, syndromes, and paraphilias assess and treat their mental problems.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Cognitive psychology: In this branch, psychologists study how humans and animals process information. They usually focus on attention, memory, intelligence, language, problem solving and perception.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Comparative psychology: The study of the behavior and mental process of animals.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Counseling psychology: This is similar to clinical psychology, however, this branch focuses more on everyday problems or problems that don't involve psychopathology like divorce, being bullied, or family problems. On the other hand, clinical psychologists can also help with these types of problems, but they are also equipped with the training to deal with more serious disorders.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Cross-cultural psychology: This branch focuses on the impact culture has on human behavior and the difference between innate and culture-dependant behavior.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Developmental psychology: Psychologists on this branch focus on how behavior and mental processes change throughout life.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Educational psychology: This branch has as its goal to study humans in an educational institution to understand how they learn and how they can improve this process. </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Engineering psychology: Also known as psycho-ergonomics, this branch explores how humans interact with machines and how this interaction can be improved.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Evolutionary psychology: The focus on this branch is to understand how behavior and mental processes came to be using evolutionary principles.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: large;">Forensic psychology: Psychologists in this branch try to understand the behavior and mental processes present in a courtroom. It is a mixture of psychology and legal issues.</span></li>
</ul>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;">As you can see there are many branches within psychology (If you want to explore other subfields check out this link http://www.apa.org/careers/resources/guides/careers.aspx). Psychologists don't only give therapy and they aren't the only ones who can do so, counselors and psychiatrists can too. As you may start to see, human behavior and mental processes are affected by many factors and psychologists try to study each one of them to ultimately find out why we are who we are and why we do what we do. </span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;">Feel free to leave a comment and don't forget to subscribe by email!</span></div>
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<div>
</div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-66811483689953602792016-05-20T10:58:00.000-07:002016-05-20T10:58:29.132-07:00Dopamine: Schizophrenia and Parkinson's disorder.<div style="text-align: justify;">
<h2 style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Dopamine and its Relationship to Parkinson’s Disorder and Schizophrenia</span></span></h2>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Dopamine is one of the brain’s
neurotransmitters (Carlson, 2013). This neurochemical performs an important
role in concepts such as movement and motivation. The purpose of this essay is
to explore the many functions of dopamine and its influence on behavior.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> The beginning
of the subject of this essay starts when tyrosine is synthesized into dopamine
(Cumming, 2009). Dopamine has been placed in the category of monoamines and in
the subcategory of catecholamines, which is a class of amines that includes the
above mentioned neurotransmitter, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. Moreover,
the chemical Tyrosine hydroxylase is the enzyme (a catalyst that either breaks or
combines components (</span><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Encyclopædia
Britannica, n. d.</span><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">)) involved in the biosynthesis of
catecholamines (Kuhar, Couceyro, Lambert, n. d.). Its cofactor is biopterin,
which is a common cofactor for enzymes, and uses molecular oxygen and tyrosine
as its substrates.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"> After Tyrosine, which is an amino acid,
receives an oxygen and a hydrogen atom it becomes L-DOPA (Carlson, 2013). DOPA
decarboxylase, which is another enzyme, removes the carboxyl group from DOPA in
order for it to become dopamine (Kuhar et al., n. d.). Later, d<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white; color: #252525;">opamine
β-hydroxylase is used to synthesize epinephrine or norepinephrine, but for the
purpose of this essay we are going to stop in the biosynthesis process here.</span></span><span style="background: white; color: #252525;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<o:p style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span><img height="163" src="http://f.tqn.com/y/chemistry/1/S/E/R/1/Tyrosine.jpg" width="320" /><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The
image above shows the chemical structure of tyrosine. When tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine into
L-Dopa the structure changes and ends up looking like the structure below.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;">After DOPA decarboxylase acts upon L-Dopa, the following
changes in the chemical structure take place., thus, becoming dopamine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: large;"> The most important dopaminergic
neurons are in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (Carlson, 2012).
The former and the latter are in the midbrain. It has been calculated that the
dopamine cells in the substantia nigra measure on average 50 μm (Cumming, 2009).
The measure that was just mentioned refers to the idea of a micrometer, or the
millionth of a meter. In addition, they are usually pigmented, which is caused
by neuromelanin granules in the cytoplasm of the cell. Moreover, it has been
calculated that there are around 300, 500 dopamine neurons in each side of the
substantia nigra and that around 8% is lost per decade due to aging (Cabello et
al. 2002).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> The physiology of dopamine neurons
is similar to other neurons. For example, they are polarized at -70mV and this
is kept this way by the activity of sodium and potassium (Cumming, 2009).
Nevertheless, something different is how they temporarily increase dopamine
release by firing in bursts, which depends on the depolarization of the neurons
(Grace, 1991). The dopaminergic cells mentioned in the paragraph above have
their axons pointed towards the neostriatum, which has been accredited to be
involved in movement. Another connection that involves movement is between the
substantia nigra and the corpus striatum. This is why dopamine cells are
connected with Parkinson’s disease. According to the National Institute of
Health, when the neurons mentioned above die or become impaired there is less
dopamine in the central nervous system, and this is what lead individuals to
develop Parkinson’s disease (National Institute of Health, n. d.).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> In fact, it is possible to induce
Parkinson’s disorder. Researchers, specifically biopsychologists, are able to
explore more about the disease once it is induced in rats. One way of
performing this technique is by intracerebral injections of the dopamine analog
6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). This is a neurotoxin that damages dopamine pathways
(Hanrott et al., 2005). Another way in which Parkinson’s disease can be induced
is when MPTP, or meperidine analog
1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine, enters the blood-brain barrier.
This causes dopaminergic neurons to be poisoned and asphyxiate from the inside
(Cummings, 2009).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Another mental illness that is
affected by dopamine is schizophrenia. One of the first connections discovered
between dopamine and schizophrenia was with the use of chlorpromazine in 1952
(Ban, 2007). This drug was used by psychiatrists mainly to treat anxiety,
however, it was also given to psychotic patients. It was not really efficient
in the former, but it was for the latter. This happened because chlorpromazine
is a dopamine antagonist, specifically it blocks D2 and D3 dopamine receptors (Carlson,
2012).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;">If
dopamine antagonists are able to remove positive symptoms, then, people that
are not schizophrenic would experience them after consuming agonists. This
happens when individuals consume drugs such as amphetamine, cocaine, or L-Dopa.
The first two block reuptake and the last one stimulates the synthesis of
dopamine. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> The use of a dopamine antagonist
used to treat psychosis and the idea that dopamine was also a neurotransmitter,
and not only a precursor for norepinephrine, strengthen the idea that hyperactivity
of dopamine was the cause of schizophrenia, at least for the positive symptoms
(Brisch et al., 2014). There are three classifications of schizophrenic
symptoms. They are positive, negative, and negative. The first category are
symptoms that add something to the individual. This includes delusions, which
are false ideals (Delusions, 2016), hallucinations, which are perceptions that
are not real (Hallucinations, 2016), and thought disorders, which refer to a
confusion in cognition (Thought-disorder, 2016). The negative symptoms refer to
an absence or the decrease of a behavior. This includes being socially
withdrawn, lack of affect, and reduced motivation (Carlson, 2012). The last
category, which is cognitive symptoms, refers to those that add distortion to
thinking. These symptoms include problems in memory, attention, learning, and
problem solving (Carlson, 2012). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The Three Categories
of Symptoms in Schizophrenia</span></h2>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Negative Symptoms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Social Withdrawal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.9pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Lack of Affect<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.9pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Anhedonia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Positive Symptoms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Hallucinations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.9pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Delusions<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.9pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thought-disorders<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Cognitive Symptoms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.85pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Problems in Attention<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.9pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Problems in Learning<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 116.9pt;" valign="top" width="156">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 10.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Problems in Memory<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> The hyperactivity of dopamine theory
does not only mean that there is an excess of dopamine, but it can also indicate
that the dopaminergic receptors are hypersensitive. This happens for several
reasons. One of them is that because D2 dopamine receptors are blocked, usually
because of anti-psychotic medication, their affinity increases (Seeman et al.,
2014). All of the statements above are related to hyperactivity of dopamine and
its relation to positive symptoms. However, the cause of the negative ones has
not been explained.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Neurological
damage is the believed cause, or at least the most supported theory, for the
negative symptoms of schizophrenia. There are several reasons that support this
fact. The first one is the similitude between other disorders that are caused
by brain damage and the negative symptoms that are present in schizophrenics
(Hall, 1998). The evidence of damage to the brain is seen in the large
ventricles, which are spaces in the forebrain and brainstem that if large
indicate loss of brain tissue (Purves, 2001), that are shown on computerized tomographic
(CT) scans. The symptoms that are found in people with large ventricles, not
only schizophrenics with negative symptoms, include catatonia, which is a lack
of movement (Catatonia, 2016), and poor visual pursuit, which is a lack of
ability in following an object with the eyes (Visual Pursuit, 2016).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Usually, the damage has to occur in
the prefrontal cortex in order for negative symptoms to be present (Hall, 1998).
Other individuals that have damage in the same areas of the brain perform similarly
to schizophrenics in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) (Everett et al., 2001).
This test involves sorting cards into three categories: shape, color, and
number of figures. If an individual shows no problems in arranging cards into
one category, but presents difficulty when asked to change the classification,
they would be categorized as being behaviorally inflexible. This refers to the
notion that an individual or an animal can or cannot adapt their behavior
(Brown & Tait, 2014).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> In addition, it is possible for an
individual to present both types of symptoms. This involves both theories, the neurological
damage in the prefrontal cortex and hyperactivity of dopamine or
hypersensitivity of dopaminergic receptors, working together. This would mean
that the brain damage that causes the negative symptoms is actually harming
neurons that inhibit dopamine release, and thus causing the hyperactivity of dopamine.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;">References</span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Ban,
T. A. (2007). Fifty years chlorpromazine: a historical perspective. <i>Neuropsychiatric
Disease and Treatment</i>, <i>3</i>(4), 495–500.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Brisch,
R., Saniotis, A., Wolf, R., Bielau, H., Bernstein, H.-G., Steiner, J., … Gos,
T. (2014). The Role of Dopamine in Schizophrenia from a Neurobiological and
Evolutionary Perspective: Old Fashioned, but Still in Vogue. <i>Frontiers
in Psychiatry</i>, <i>5</i>, 47. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00047<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Brown,
V., & Tait, D. (2014). Behavioral Flexibility: Attentional Shifting, Rule
Switching and Response Reversal. <i>Springer Reference</i>.
doi:10.1007/springerreference_169297 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Cabello, C. R., Thune, J. J.,
Pakkenberg H., & Pakkenberg, B. 2002, “Ageing of substantia nigra in
humans: cell loss may be compensated by hypertrophy”, <i>Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol., </i>vol 28, no. 4, pp. 283-291.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Carlson, N. R. (2012). <i>Physiology of
behavior</i> (11th ed.).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Catatonic. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/catatonic.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Cumming, P. (2009). <i>Imaging
dopamine</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Delusions. (2016).
Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/delusion <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.).
Enzyme. Retrieved March 20, 2016, from http://www.britannica.com/science/enzyme
<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Everett, J., Lavoie, K., Gagnon, J. F.,
& Gosselin, N. (2001). Performance of patients with schizophrenia on the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). <i>Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience</i>, <i>26</i>(2),
123–130.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Grace, A. A. (1991). “Phasic versus
tonic dopamine release and the modulation of dopamine system responsivity: a
hypothesis for the etiology of schizophrenia,” <i>Neuroscience,</i> Vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 333-348. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Hall, R. (1998). Potential Causes of
Schizophrenia. Retrieved from
http://web.mst.edu/~rhall/neuroscience/07_disorders/schizo_cause.pdf <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Hallucinations (2016). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hallucinations<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Hanrott, K., Gudmensen, L., O'Neill,
M., & Wonnacott, S. (2005). 6-Hydroxydopamine-induced Apoptosis Is Mediated
via Extracellular Auto-oxidation and Caspase 3-dependent Activation of Protein
Kinase C. <i>Journal of Biological Chemidstry,</i> <i>281</i>(9), 5373-5382.
doi:10.1074/jbc.m511560200 <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Kuhar, M. J., Couceyro, P. R., &
Lambert, P. D. (n.d.). Biosynthesis of Catecholamines. Retrieved March 20,
2016, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27988/<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">National Institute of Health. (n.d.).
Parkinson's Disease. Retrieved from
http://nihseniorhealth.gov/parkinsonsdisease/whatcausesparkinsonsdisease/01.html
<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-size: large;">Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D,
et al., editors. Neuroscience. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates.
(2001). The Ventricular System.Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11083/<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Seeman,
M. V., & Seeman, P. (2014). Is schizophrenia a dopamine supersensitivity
psychotic reaction? <i>Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology &
Biological Psychiatry</i>, <i>0</i>, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.10.003.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.10.003<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Thought-disorder.
(2016). Retrieved from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/thought-disorder.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">Visual Pursuit.
(2016). Retrieved from http://psychologydictionary.org/visual-pursuit/.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-45815782443747865592016-05-08T23:56:00.000-07:002016-05-09T00:07:24.036-07:00Behaviorism (Part 1)<span style="font-size: large;">For more information on the history of psychology please check out "A History of Modern Psychology," by C. James Goodwin.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Behaviorism is a school of thought in philosophy and psychology that focused on only studying concepts that were observable like behavior and ignoring those that were invisible to the eye such as the mind (1). The term was coined by John Watson.</span></div>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />Behaviorism before John B. Watson</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://ripehp.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/john-b-watson.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://ripehp.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/john-b-watson.jpg" width="240" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">People usually think that Watson was the one who invented the innovative ideas that pertained to behaviorism, but the truth was that they were appearing in different countries throughout time. <span style="text-align: justify;">The concept that outside experiences and not mental processes were what shaped individuals was central in British empiricism (2); it was also an important point of view in the discussion of nature vs nurture. Moreover, physiologists spread in the 19th century ideologies known as materialistic and mechanistic. The former is the idea that everything is either physical or can be reduced to a physical component (3). The latter is similar, it is the point of view that natural processes can be reduced to matter and motion (4). In addition, August Comte, a French philosopher, developed positivism, which is the notion that knowledge should only come from observable experience (5). A picture of John B. Watson can be found to the right. </span></span><span style="font-size: large;">These ideas started to infiltrate psychology. For example, in experimental psychology, psychologists decreased the use of studies that required introspection and instead were interested in experiments that used animals such as maze studies. Additionally, there were statements like those of James McKeen Cattell that asserted that their laboratory focused very little on introspection, and that behavior, and not the study of mental processes, contributed more to the general pool of knowledge in psychology (6).</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Ivan Pavlov</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/27/89/79/2789791c0c1bd572c9e0def079f2eda2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/27/89/79/2789791c0c1bd572c9e0def079f2eda2.jpg" width="265" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Many of you might have heard of Ivan Pavlov. He won the Nobel Prize for his research in digestion. Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate when they heard the sound of a bell. He was the director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and trained his new students, which usually were physicians that were trying to get their PhD, to replicate old studies about digestion. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;">He designed several types of experiments. One of them was collecting stomach fluids by using a technique that is now known as the "Pavlov's Pouch." This is a cut made in the stomach that collects fluids without being contaminated by the food (7). The fluids were sold to other labs so they could study them too, as well as to the public because it was marketed as an elixir that helped with digestion. However, his most notorious experiment involves the recollection of saliva. Before we go into detail about Pavlov's conditioning experiment, it is important to describe one conducted by S. G. Vul'fson who was one of Pavlov's students. This experiment explored the amount of saliva produced by dogs when shown dry or moist food. After initial trials, the dogs started to salivate when they expected the food. This messed up the data, but interested Pavlov because the salivation was consistent. Thus, the Institute created a research laboratory known as the Tower of Silence. The name came to be because there were rooms that were soundproof so that the dogs would not be influenced by sound.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;">
</div>
<span style="font-size: large;">He reported this in the lectures that summarized 25 years of his work that were later translated to English by one of his students, G. V. Anrep. The English version of the lectures was titled Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex." Pavlov explained that the salivation to food was a reflex and that the salivation to the stimulus that announced food became a learned reflex. He named this type of learned reflexes conditioning.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<a href="http://image.slidesharecdn.com/behaviorslides1-150311015046-conversion-gate01/95/behavior-learning-classical-conditioning-11-638.jpg?cb=1426038893" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://image.slidesharecdn.com/behaviorslides1-150311015046-conversion-gate01/95/behavior-learning-classical-conditioning-11-638.jpg?cb=1426038893" height="240" width="320" /></a><span style="font-size: large;">There were four terms that were central to his theory. To explain each concept the concept Unconditional stimulus (UCS), which is a stimuli that can cause a response, but does cause a learned reflex (In this case, the UCS is the food. The unconditioned reflex (UCR), is an unlearned response. In this case, the UCR is the salivation by the dog. The third term is conditioned stimulus (CS). This refers to a stimulus that would not have caused a response if it had not been conditioned. In this case, the CS is the bell. Finally, the conditioned reflex (CR), is the learned response to the CS. In this case, it would be salivation. In other words, a bell doesn't cause a dog to salivate (UCR), but food (UCS) does. However, when a bell and food are paired, the dogs starts to salivate (CR) when it hears the bell (CS) because it expects food.</span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;">References</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">1. http://www.iep.utm.edu/behavior/</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">2. https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/110/8-empiricism.htm</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">3. http://www.britannica.com/topic/materialism-philosophy</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4. http://www.britannica.com/topic/mechanism-philosophy</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">5. http://www.britannica.com/topic/positivisml</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">6. "A History of Modern Psychology," by C. James Goodwin</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">7. http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/Pavlov%20pouch</span>Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-46257726608208372002016-05-03T22:40:00.001-07:002016-05-03T22:52:19.008-07:00The Use of Psychology as a Justification of Discrimination<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The purpose of this essay is to explore the ways science was
used in order to justify discrimination. An emphasis will be placed on
psychology and Mexican-Americans living in the United States that were the
targets of prejudices.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">There were several areas of science that were used to
discriminate individuals in the United States. The first one that will be
explored is the intelligence test known as the Binet-Simon scales. It is
important to note that a test bias is an error that can be found in the results
of said tests in two ways. The first one is in the design of the test, such as
the sample chosen or the operant definition of a variable. The second form of a
test bias is seen socially. An example of the second form of bias is seen if a
certain group, such as Chicanos or Mexicans living in the U. S., were not
falling under the same regression line of the test. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">There are four types of biases. The first one is called
construct validity. This means that even though a test is supposed to measure a
specific content, it is not accurately exploring it. In other words, a test is
not investigating the same idea that is trying to measure. An example of this
type of bias will be explored on the military test developed by American
Psychological Association (APA) president Robert Yerkes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The second type of bias is called content validity. This is when
questions in the test are not fair for all participants. This can be caused by
a lack of experience from a certain group. For example, Mexican Americans could
be asked about food that is eaten traditionally in the south of America. But
because they do not have the experience of eating that type of food within their
culture, they should not be penalized or placed in a low category of mental
intelligence. Another example of this type of bias can be seen in the wording or
diction of tests. For example, if a question asks about instruments used for
fishing, but Mexican Americans do not live, and thus have not experienced so
far, in an environment surrounded of water bodies, the question would be
considered to have a content validity bias.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The third bias is known as item selection. This refers to the
notion, which is similar to content validity bias, that specific questions come
from what the dominant group, in this case white Americans, are expected to
know or perform. In other words, it is a narrowed type content validity bias, that
ignores certain groups, such as Chicanos.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The last type of bias that will be explored is named
criterion-related validity. This is the idea that the outcomes of a sample are
not accurate in describing the population that is the target of the study. An
example of this would be if Mexican Americans performed low in intelligence
tests, would it mean that they would under-perform on job markets or would they
not be successful employees because of their low intellect.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Before psychologist Ebbinghaus, who was known for his research
in memory, explored a way to test intelligence, a measure known as the
two-point threshold was correlated with academic performance. This measure
explored how far two stimuli, such as the fingers of researchers placed on the
backs of participants, had to be in order to be detected as two sources of physical
stimulation instead of one.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">What Ebbinghaus did was give students incomplete sentences so
they could finish them in a complete manner. However, his test only divided
students into strong and weak ones in terms of intelligence. Like Ebbinghaus,
Binet thought that only cognitive processes such as memory tests and problem
solving tasks, and not physical tests could determine intelligence. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Students
who were not academically competent were placed into three categories: The
idiots, who were the worst of the worst, the imbeciles, who were better than
idiots, but still performed poorly, and the debiles, who were the ones who were
just below the average student, but still could be helped. The third category
did not have a name; it was Binet who named it.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Binet-Simon scale was the result of the development of
Binet's test that involved cognitive processes and the help of his research
assistance Theodore Simon. Both of them categorized tasks that someone of a
certain age could perform, if the individual could not perform it, then they
would be considered subnormal. Tasks for a three-year-old included showing were
their facial feature where, for a five-year-old a task was to repeat a ten
syllable sentence, for a seven-year-old it was to copy written sentences.
Children who were nine years old had to arrange five weight in order (Dennis,
1984).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">There are three things that are important to mention about
Binet's opinion of his test. First, he did not think that intelligence was a
unique component, but rather different types of skills interacting with each
other. The second notion was that intelligence was not fixed, but rather a
component of our lives that is always changing. Because of this idea, he
developed material to help children increase their intelligence. The third
belief was that his test would only be beneficial and useful in the educational
context (Goodwin, 2015).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> The tests were used by other
psychologists to classify undesired groups as mentally retarded people,
especially in the 1900s. These groups included African Americans and Mexican
American individuals. The discrimination occurred because there was a cultural
bias in terms of the diction in the tests. This led intelligence to be
challenged in the court. An example of this is the case of Larry P. v. Wilson
Riles. The judge in the case ruled that the tests that were placing children on
special education classes were biased. Nevertheless, the opposite happened in
the case of Parents in Action in Special Education. The ruling in the latter
found that tests were not used to discriminate and were not culturally biased.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Psychologist Henry Goddard was the
one who brought Binet’s test to the United States. He tried to use the leave
the Binet scale and its techniques intact. However, he made the modification of
renaming the category of debiles to morons. He used the Greek word moronia,
which means foolish, as an inspiration to labeling the third category. This
last category boosted the discrimination towards undesired groups of people in
the U. S. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> This happened because groups that
contained minorities, such as Chicanos, were said to be morons, and thus the
cause of a lot of problems in their contemporary society. This meant, for
eugenicists (the concept will be explained down below), that the answer would
be to remove the undesired groups from the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> However, the current IQ test is no
longer culturally biased. The National Academy of Science created two panels
and the American Psychological Association assembled a task force that found
that neither the IQ nor other standardize tests under predict how Mexican
American and other groups that are usually targets of discrimination would
perform.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> The emphasis on the biological
aspects of human beings was a result of the theory of Charles Darwin. He
asserted that organisms changed throughout time by a process called evolution.
This refers to the aided survival by mutations in the DNA that either helped
living organisms avoid dying or helped them reproduce. The mutations could be
beneficial or harmful. Francis Galton took the theory of Charles Darwin and
explained that those mutations happened in individuals’ intelligence. Thus,
there were groups, such as immigrants, that would never reach the intelligence
of other groups.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Galton, who was the cousin of
Charles Darwin, introduced the concept and eugenics. This is the notion that
human beings with desired attributes should be supported, encouraged, and
protected, and the ones without those characteristics should not be allowed to
live. This idea was central in the political system at the time. In fact,
Hitler based his actions on the notion of eugenics. He described Eugenics as the
“study of the agencies under social control that may improve or impair the
racial qualities of future generations either physically or mentally” (1). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 23.1pt; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> An argument created against Galton
was that the tests were limiting the resources of Chicanos because they were
being penalized for having low scores on biased tests. Other arguments included
that the tests’ language. For example, there are words that were commonly used
by Americans in the north of the U. S., but unknown to the average Mexican
American. Additionally, the tests were created using a normal distribution.
Thus, if American students were used to generalize the intelligence test, the
Mexican Americans would normally fall under the distribution. This means that
the tests were not valid or reliable. According to the American Psychological
Association and the American Educational Research Association, test should be
fair and have as a purpose to help individuals, but as was seen before the
Binet-Simon scales were not fair.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Another form of intelligence tests
that were target of controversy that revolved around Mexican American
discrimination were those developed by President of the Psychological
Association of America Robert Yerkes. He developed two types of tests: Alpha
and Beta tests that were given to the military to test whether they were fit
for combat. One of tests was given to literate individuals, which usually
encompassed Americans. They had to read and answer questions related to word
problem solving. The other test was given to illiterate people, which was
usually groups of Mexican Americans. Participants had to finish incomplete
picture and questions that revolved around completing patterns. This was biased
and was not an efficient way to measure intelligence because the second test
does not measure the same elements of the first test. This resulted in the bias
known as construct validity.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> The tests created by Yerkes were
used to discriminate immigrants coming from Europe during the first World War.
People who followed the notion of eugenics did not wanted immigrants in the
United States because they would alter the biological nature of intelligence in
Americans. Therefore, the tests were used as evidence to support the desire of
eugenicists to keep out the maximum number of immigrants coming to America.
Nevertheless, it was not only used for European immigrants, but for Mexicans
that were moving to the U. S. too.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In conclusion, intelligence test developed
by psychologists such as the Yerkes military alpha and beta tests and the
Binet-Simon scale were used as a way to justify discrimination towards
Chicanos. The tests were culturally and technically unfair and contained four
types of biases that created a negative impact in the Mexican-American culture.
Nevertheless, the tests have been revised and carefully crafted in order to
avoid the prejudices that once existed in America.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><br />
</span><span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">References</span><span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Dennis, P. M. (1984). The Edison questionnaire. <i>Journal
of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 20, </i>23-37.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 16.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #190c00;">Goodwin, C. J. (2015).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #190c00;"> </span></span><i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #190c00;">A history of modern psychology</span></i><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; color: #190c00;">. New York: J.
Wiley. </span><span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="color: #190c00; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
http://www.uvm.edu/~eugenics/whatisf.html</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-49035575943283641172016-05-03T21:19:00.000-07:002016-05-03T21:24:11.244-07:00The Century of the Self (Documentary)This Video May Contain Copyrighted (© ) Material. The Use of Which Has Not Always Been Specifically Authorized by The Copyright Owner. Such Material is Made Available to Advance Understanding of Ecological, Political, Human Rights, Economic, Democracy, Scientific, Moral, Ethical, Social Justice Issues, Teaching, and Research. It is believed that this Constitutes a ''Fair Use'' of Any Such Copyrighted Material as Provided For in Section 107 of the US Copyright Law. In Accordance With Title - 17 U.S.C. Section 107, This Material is Distributed Without PROFIT to Those Who Have Expressed a Prior General Interest in Receiving Similar Information For Research and Educational Purposes
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/eJ3RzGoQC4s" width="420"></iframe>Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-32302170100129122862016-04-27T23:46:00.002-07:002016-04-27T23:59:24.449-07:00Introduction to Psychobiology - Part 6 (A Neurotransmitter known as Acetylcholine)<div>
<span style="font-size: large;">For more information about psychobiology, please check out "Physiology of Behavior," by Neil Carson</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">In this post we will cover a neurotransmitter known as Acetylcholine (ACh)</span><br />
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<h3>
<a href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy332/Salinas/Neurotransmitters/Slide04.GIF" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a><a href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy332/Salinas/Neurotransmitters/Slide04.GIF" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a><span style="font-size: large;">Acetylcholine (ACh)</span></h3>
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<a href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy332/Salinas/Neurotransmitters/Slide04.GIF" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/class/Psy332/Salinas/Neurotransmitters/Slide04.GIF" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: large;">This is thought to be the first discovered neurotransmitter by Otto Loewi (1). To the right a drawing of a rat's brain and its acetylcholine pathway can be seen. ACh can be found in the peripheral nervous system(PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS). In the PNS it is involved with neuromuscular junction (2). This is where an axon reaches a muscle (3). Here the ACh causes EPSPs. This is excitatory postsynaptic potential and it refers to the action that increases the probability of an action potential occuring. On the other hand, IPSPs inhibit postsynaptic potentials (4). </span><span style="font-size: large;">In the CNS, ACh in the basal forebrain is involved in perceptual learning and memory. In the Medial Septum, specifically the Hippocampus, ACH is also involved in learning and memory. In the Dorsolateral Pons, it can be found when individuals are passing through their REM sleep (Rapid eye movement). Finally, in the Putamen, Nucleus Accumbens, and the Caudate Nucleus Acetylcholine is involved in motor functions.</span></div>
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Biosynthesis of ACh</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">We will now look at the synthesis of acetylcholine (synthesis is the construction of a complex chemical (5)). As you can see the synthesis starts with two substances: Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and Choline. Then, Choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), which is an enzyme (remember that enzymes are catalysts that either help break or unite two substances) transfers the acetate ion to Choline, thus, ending up with acetylcholine (6).</span></div>
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Two Subtypes of Receptors</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Both of the subtypes are found in the CNS. They are nicotinic and muscarinic. The former is ionotropic, which is a receptor that is linked to an ion channels (7), is only found on muscle fibers (8). The latter is metabotropic, which obtained this name because the "movement of ions through a channel depends on one or more metabolic steps" (7).</span></div>
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Six Cholinergic Drugs</span></h3>
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<ol><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.oneidabotox.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Botox.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.oneidabotox.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Botox.jpg" height="320" width="228" /></a>
<li>Black Widow Spider Venom: This venom triggers the release of acetylcholine.</li>
<li>Hemicholinium: This prevents the uptake of choline</li>
<li>Atropine: This is a direct muscarinic antagonist. It produces dilated eyes.</li>
<li>Curare: This comes from a plant and it prevents muscle contraction. It is a nicotinic antagonist that is direct.</li>
<li>Neostigmine: This is an indirect agonist that blocks AChe</li>
<li>Botulinum Toxin: Also known as Botox, it prevents release the release of acetylcholine (8).</li>
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<span style="font-size: large;">References</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s1/chapter11.html</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s1/chapter04.html</span></div>
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3. http://education.ucf.edu/litsymposium/resources2013/crittenden_handout1.pdf</div>
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4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11117/<br />
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5. http://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-synthesis<br />
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6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10594838<br />
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7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10855/<br />
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8. "Physiology of Behavior," by Neil Carson.</div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-76700787702044971332016-04-27T21:13:00.003-07:002016-04-27T21:15:06.857-07:00Introduction to Psychobiology - Part 5 (Drug Effects)<div class="MsoNormal">
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<a href="https://www.softchalk.com/lessonchallenge09/lesson/Pharmacology/dose_response.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a><a href="https://www.softchalk.com/lessonchallenge09/lesson/Pharmacology/dose_response.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a><a href="https://www.softchalk.com/lessonchallenge09/lesson/Pharmacology/dose_response.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a><a href="https://www.softchalk.com/lessonchallenge09/lesson/Pharmacology/dose_response.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://www.softchalk.com/lessonchallenge09/lesson/Pharmacology/dose_response.png" width="400" /></a><a href="https://www.softchalk.com/lessonchallenge09/lesson/Pharmacology/dose_response.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></a><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;">For more information about psychobiology, please check out: "Physiology of Behavior," by Neil Carlson</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;">W</span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;">e mentioned before that
drug effe</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;">cts are the biological and behavioral outcomes produced by introd</span><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;">ucing
drugs into the body. Now we will introduce a concept known as drug-response
curve that will connect to past material.</span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;">This is refers to a graph that displays up to which point there is an the maximum effect obtained (1). In the picture on the right we can observe that the blue line represents the desired effect, in this case the analgesic effect, of morphine. Meanwhile, the red line describes when the dose of a drug produces a negative outcome, in this case the depressive effect. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;">To measure when a drug is safe, we utilize (there are other methods to measure safety) the therapeutic index. This is the ratio between two numbers. The first one is the amount of a dose needed in order for 50% of a sample to obtain the desired effect of a drug, the second number is obtained by calculating the dose needed to cause 50% of a sample to die. The lower the ratio, the more dangerous it is to make a mistake by prescribing a drug (2).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">There are two reasons why the effects of drugs vary:</span></span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Each drug has different sites of action</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">The affinity, which is the readiness by which two molecules attach, of a drug.</span></span></li>
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<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Binding Sites for Drugs</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: large;">There are two types of binding sites. Direct and Indirect. In the former, the binding site is competitive. This means that neurotransmitters and drugs compete for the same binding site. In the latter, neurotransmitters and drugs have a separate one.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img src="http://biology-forums.com/gallery/medium_321806_30_03_15_4_24_59_21132599.jpeg" /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: large;">If you looked at the pictured above, you might have noticed that there are also two extra categories: agonist and an antagonist. Antagonists help inhibit the effects of the natural ligand and an agonist facilitates the effect of a neurotransmitter (3).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Interesting Fact: There are two possible outcomes for repeated use of drugs. Tolerance, which means that the effectiveness of a drugs diminishes, or sensitization, which means that the effectiveness increases.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Turnover Model</span></span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;"><span style="font-size: large;">There are several ways a drug can effect neural activity, we will only cover seven (2).</span></span></span></div>
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</div>
<ol>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Synthesis: A drug can inactivate the synthesis of a neurotransmitter</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Storage: A drug can prevent the storage of a neurotransmitter (NT) in vesicles.</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Release: A drug can stimulate the release of a NT</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Receptor Activation: A drug can help stimulate receptors. There are two: postsynaptic and presynaptic. We will cover the latter later.</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Enzymatic Deactivation: A drug can help the enzymes get rid of a NT</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Reuptake: A drug can inhibit reuptake.</span></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://biology-forums.com/gallery/medium_321806_30_03_15_4_24_59_211331832.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://biology-forums.com/gallery/medium_321806_30_03_15_4_24_59_211331832.jpeg" height="320" width="228" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/exocyto.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/exocyto.gif" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">Like promised let us cover presynaptic heteroreceptors. This are usually found in axoaxonic synapses. The second axon is sensitive to the NTs of the first one. Thus, if there is presynaptic inhibition the calcium channels will close and there will be less or none NTs released from the second axon. If the opposite happens, presynaptic facilitation, the calcium channels will open, thus, facilitating NTs release. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large; line-height: 17.12px;">Remember that calcium is required for exocytosis. This is when a vesicle becomes part of the membrane (4).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: large;">References</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">1. https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/chemicals/guide/pdfs/lesson3.pdf</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">2. "Physiology of Behavior," by Neil Carson</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">3. http://biowiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Biochemistry/Transport_and_Kinetics/Enzyme_Inhibition/Agonist_and_Antagonist_of_Ligand_Binding</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 17.12px;">4. http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/exocy.htm</span></span></div>
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Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-23155840189984730512016-04-27T01:03:00.000-07:002019-01-12T19:26:42.128-08:00The Five Lectures of Freud: An Introduction to Psychoanalysis<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 32px; text-align: center;">
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<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg" width="227" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 48px;"> Sigmund Freud, a neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, made his first and only trip to the United States in 1909 </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">(Jay, 2016).</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 48px;"> Stanley Hall, who </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">was the first person to receive a PhD degree in psychology in the U.S., and the first president of the American Psychological Association, had invited Freud to </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 48px;">Clark University to lecture on psychoanalysis (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 48px;">Encyclopædia Britannica, 2016c)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 48px;">. The lectures were part of the university celebrating its twentieth anniversary in which prominent figures spoke about their field (Burnham, 2012). The purpose of this essay is to explore each of Freud’s lectures in detail in order to introduce psychoanalysis. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span></div>
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<a href="https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/209/flashcards/1892209/png/freud1351814399405.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/209/flashcards/1892209/png/freud1351814399405.png" width="330" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">Before describing the lectures, it is important to understand how Freud mapped the mind. He divided it into three parts twice. The first time, he categorized it into the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious (Freud, 1938). The conscious layer contains everything that an individual is aware of, such as immediate physical experience. For example, a fresh cut, the first bite of a foreign dish, anything that attracts our attention. On the other hand, the preconscious contains what we are not aware of, but can bring forth to the conscious. This includes memories such as what an individual ate for lunch the day before. However, it is not limited to memories only, it also could also contain immediate physical experience that is not in the conscious such as background noise or proprioception. The last division is the unconscious. This encompasses elements that we are not aware of and are being repressed, which is an essential concept in psychoanalysis that will later be described. This material will not come forward to the conscious unless with the help of analysis.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> The second time he organized the mind, he divided it into the id, the ego, and the superego (Rana, 1997). The superego is the part of the mind that is the last to develop and is constantly reminding the ego of rules and morals; they could be social, political, religious, etc. The id, which is innate, is the most important component in psychoanalysis. It is constantly looking for pleasure. The next division is the ego. This plays the role of a moderator between the rules of the superego and the desires of the id. Moreover, the superego is both conscious and unconscious, as well as the ego. On the other hand, according to Freud, the Id is the only part of the strata that is solely unconscious. Nevertheless, according to the neuropsychoanalyst Mark Solms, there is a conscious id (Solms, 2013).</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Anna_O.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Anna_O.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In the first lecture, Freud describes how hysteria was one of the foundations of psychoanalysis. He talks about one of his patients when he was working with Dr. Josef Breuer (Gray, n. d.). The patient was a twenty-year-old woman who was experiencing physical symptoms such paralysis, loss of sensation, trouble with her vision and speech, and for several weeks she experienced hydrophobia. Another symptom was a condition called absence, where she seemed to disconnect from reality and concentrated on a special thought. When she was in this condition, she usually muttered certain words. Dr. Breuer wrote down the words and tried to use them as a starting point in order to induce hypnosis. When the patient was hypnotized, she could talk about what she was thinking during her absences, which were usually fantasies or memories. After she explored her fantasies while being under hypnosis, the physical symptoms of hysteria disappeared. She called this method of treatment the talking cure. Her picture can be found on the right side of this paragraph.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> An example of how one of her trains of thought connected to her symptoms is in the following story. During one summer, the patient visited a friend who kept a dog as their pet. This dog would drink from the glass of water of her friend, and her friend would later drink from it too. The patient explained that she had a negative opinion of her friend (she never used the word friend, but rather lady-companion), but this event was what disgusted her the most. When the patient finished telling this story, she was able to drink water once again, which meant that her symptom of hydrophobia had disappeared.</span></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.aglp.org/gap/1_history/Breuer.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://www.aglp.org/gap/1_history/Breuer.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">This connection between memories and physical symptoms was present in every hysteric patient. He concluded from this that “hysterical patients suffer from reminiscences” (Freud, 1909). In other words, the symptoms are expressions of memories. The next thing to explore is what kind of memories create the basis for hysteria. For Freud, it was events that caused suppression or repression, the former consists of making a conscious effort to remove a thought or feeling from consciousness, while the latter is its unconscious counterpart. An example of repression is seen in the hydrophobic patient who repressed her feelings of disgust. Moreover, another notion that Freud found important is the evidence of conscious and unconscious states of the patient. When Freud's patient was absent, she was able to recall the memories that were later traced back to her symptoms. On the other hand, when she was not absent, the patient was not aware the memories existed. Thus, Freud asserted that the wish contained in these expressions and in the memories was unconscious and it was brought to the conscious thanks to this new form of treatment. Therefore, the psychoanalytic method could be used to relieve the patient of its hysteria. A photograph of Dr. Breuer can be found to the left.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In the second lecture, Freud explained he discarded hypnosis, which was a central component in the process of relieving hysterical symptoms, because not all of the patients could undergo a hypnotic state. Keeping in mind that the catharsis was what aided hysteric patients, Freud tried to replicate this with individuals in their normal state. He based this direction on a demonstration by Bernheim in 1889. This French neurologist showed that people who had been put into a hypnotic state of somnambulism reported, once awake, to not remember what had occurred when they were hypnotized. Nevertheless, when Bernheim insisted that they did, the events became conscious. Freud drew a parallel between these two events, the demonstration of Bernheim and his own practice, by noting that repressed memories could be recovered if individuals were pressed for information. Therefore, Freud used suggestion as technique for people in normal state to relieve them of their symptoms. Thus, when a patient reported that they did not remember something, Freud said that the memory would become accessible the instant when he touched their foreheads. He quickly abandoned this because he asserted that it was exhausting and consumed a lot of time.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> It is important to explain that he was careful in not utilizing leading questions or influencing his patients' answers when using this technique. Thanks to these findings, he started to develop a theory that explained the etiology of hysteria. Freud argued that there was a force, which he named resistance, that prevented the expression of desires and thus created this pathological condition. He explained that one process of resistance was repression. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">The cause of repression was a result of the dynamics of the mind. He describes this process by saying that the Id contained a drive towards pleasure. Nevertheless, because it is incompatible with the rules of the superego, the ego represses it into the unconscious. Thus, a wish can be fulfilled without breaking the subject’s ethical standards.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Another example of the dynamics of the mind can be seen by another patient of Freud. This female patient felt attracted to the husband of his sister. When the patient’s sister died, she constantly thought "now he can marry me." Her wish was to be with her brother-in-law. Nevertheless, that thought became repressed by the ego because the superego's standards create a conflict with the statement. When the patient was in Freud’s practice, she reported that she did not remember this event, but after she told him this story (the memory was no longer repressed) her hysterical symptoms disappeared.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">An important characteristic of Freud’s model of the mind is that each component is not independent of the other, every part is in constant interaction with each other and that our behaviors, thoughts, feelings, etc., are the outcome of the struggle between these entities. Another important feature is the notion that even though a wish has been repressed or suppressed, it has by no means disappeared. It now exists in the unconscious where it is still trying to be fulfilled. By talking about it in a psychoanalytic setting, it becomes conscious without breaking the rules of the superego. To summarize the first two chapters, memories and fantasies are connected to hysteric symptoms and the dynamic between the parts of the mind are responsible for repressing or expressing desires.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">In the third lecture, Freud kept discussing the topic of repression. He explained that when he suggested to patients that they did remember a memory that was linked to their hysterical symptoms, the patients talked about memories or ideas, that were not related, at least in an obvious way, to their symptoms. Nevertheless, he thought that these sets of ideas were still connected to the source of hysteria, but the connection was not explicit because the ideas were being repressed. Freud made the remark that his colleague, Dr. Carl Jung, later supported this concept with research. In other words, ideas or thoughts are connected by means of associations and the more resistance presented by the subject, the more the first set of thoughts would be distorted.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">It has already been stated that hysterical symptoms were a form of expression of what an unfulfilled wish. The memories recalled by patients were also a form of an expression of said wish since they were associated to the true event that caused the repression or the suppression. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large; text-indent: 0.5in;">The conscious substitutes of repressed thoughts are not only seen in patients with hysteria, but also in the everyday life. Freud described several types of ways where this process can be seen. One of them is by telling jokes. In his third lecture, Freud told the following joke: “Two not particularly scrupulous business men had succeeded, by dint of a series of highly risky enterprises, in amassing a large fortune, and they were now making efforts to push their way into good society. One method, which struck them as a likely one, was to have their portraits painted by the most celebrated and highly-paid artist in the city, whose pictures had an immense reputation. The precious canvases were shown for the first time at a large evening party, and the two hosts themselves led the most influential connoisseur and art critic up to the wall on which the portraits were hanging side by side. He studied the works for a long time, and then, shaking his head, as though there was something he had missed, pointed to the gap between the pictures and asked quietly: ‘But where’s our saviour?”’ (Freud, 1905a). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">Freud explained that the connoisseur’s Id contained a wish to express to the businessmen that they were thieves. However, directly stating this is not appropriate,which is why resistance enabled repression. However, instead of the thought being expressed as a symptom of hysteria, the mind found that it could articulate the same notion by means of a joke. This means that jokes allow repressed material to come forward without conflicting with the superego’s standards. In other words, the connoisseur was able to insult the businessmen without offending them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">The lectures have shown thus far that everyday activities such as telling jokes, verbalizing memories, and free associating can be analyzed to understand what is repressed into the unconscious. Moreover, this analysis can remove hysterical symptoms by bringing repressed items into the conscious. Additionally, Freud explained that repression, suppression, and resistance could be the result from the different strata and components of the mind interacting with each other. One of the other outcomes that Freud explains is the inability to free associate</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">. An example of this are thoughts that are difficult to distort or the ones can be traced back easily to their source of origin. This is why, Freud argues, sometimes subjects report that they cannot continue talking during the psychoanalytic session.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Another method in which psychoanalysts explore the unconscious, besides free association, is by dream interpretation. The relevance of this technique can be seen when Freud states that “dreams are the royal road to the unconscious” (Freud, 1900). </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">He discussed how the dreams of adults may seem like random nonsense. Nevertheless, children's dreams display clearly that they are wish-fulfillments that were not satisfied the day before. Additionally, he asserted that adults' dreams are also wish-fulfillments, but their content is distorted. In other words, dreams are the disguised wish-fulfillment of repressed wishes.</span></div>
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<a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/lowres.cartoonstock.com/health-beauty-latent-dream-therapy-therapists-psychiatrists-shr0978_low.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://s3.amazonaws.com/lowres.cartoonstock.com/health-beauty-latent-dream-therapy-therapists-psychiatrists-shr0978_low.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In addition, Freud divided the content of dreams into manifest and latent content. The former is what is explicitly in the dream such as imagery, conscious thoughts, etc. Moreover, the physical representations present in the dream are from events that occurred the day before. On the other hand, latent content are the unconscious ideas represented by the manifest content. He continues his lecture by stating that the events that occurred during the day become repressed. However, when individuals fall asleep, the mechanism that restrains thoughts from entering the conscious is weakened; resistance is no longer effective. Similarly to before, patients free associated, this time to the manifest content, in order to understand their repressed material. Additionally, there are two more outcomes that occur in dreaming that result from the ego, superego, and id's interaction, which are condensation and displacement. Evidence of the former can be seen in how the manifest content can represent several latent elements (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2016a). Displacement is when a wish that can be fulfilled one way is redirected in order to be fulfilled in another (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2016b). For example, if a desire to urinate is ultimately unfulfilled when an individual is awake, a person can dream that he or she is peeing. Therefore, individuals can still fulfill wishes by dreaming; even though, the wish is not fulfilled in real life.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In the last part of his third lecture, Freud discussed the topics explored in his book “Psychopathology of Everyday Life.” As stated before, he asserted that concepts like repression and resistance were not limited to hysteric patients only, but that they occur to everyone everyday. Other defense mechanisms include the inability to recall something even when it is known, the slips of the tongue (now known as Freudian slips), as well as reading or writing in an accurate manner (Freud, 1904). These mechanisms serve the same purpose of satiating an unconscious desire.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In his fourth lecture, Freud talked about the discoveries made using the techniques mentioned above. Mainly, that sexuality was an important factor that was being repressed in both children and adults. This caused Freud to report that sexual drives were innate and universal, which created controversy since at the time it was believed that the development of sexuality was non-present during childhood (Freud, 1905b). In addition, Freud too, at first, doubted that his assertion was correct. He thought that the patients he analyzed with Breuer were the only ones that experienced an abnormal sexual, which in turn formed part in the etiology of their hysteria. However, as time passed, he observed a pattern in all of the people he analyzed whether they had hysteria or not. </span></span></div>
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<a href="http://blog.questia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Oedipus-complex.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blog.questia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Oedipus-complex.png" width="320" /></a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">He named this pattern of sexual development in childhood Oedipus complex (Lapsley, 2011). This refers to how male children are at first in love with their mothers because they are the providers of pleasure, such as food, warmth, etc. The complex also involves feelings of jealousy towards the father since he is the the object of love for the mother. This is obviously repressed. However, to support his theory of infantile sexuality, Freud shared a paper of a faculty member of Clark University. The name of the paper was “A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love between the Sexes,” and it stated that the appearance of what the author called “sex-love” did not make its initial original appearance in individuals who were in their teenage years, but rather when they were just children. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In his fifth lecture, Freud talked about transference, which is another way wishes can be fulfilled. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">This is when an emotion that is felt towards a specific person is redirected towards another, usually the psychoanalyst (Felluga, n. d.). This allows the repressed erotic and aggressive wishes to be satisfied while complying with the superego. Freud argued </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">that this was the implicit way human beings engaged in a therapeutic procedure in order to relieve tension caused by the dynamics between the Id and Superego. Finally, Freud argues that t</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">here are three possible outcomes that occur after the repressed material becomes conscious. The first one is that the individual replaces their repression with a condemning judgment about their unconscious material. The second result is that after an individual understands his or her own drives the subject can engage in a behavior that is similar to the defense mechanism known as sublimation. This refers to finding socially accepted activities that permit the person to indulge in his or her desires without breaking moral standards. An example of this is becoming aware of the drive that motivates someone to engage in aggressive behavior, then redirecting this into a more socially appropriate activity such as mixed martial arts. If this action takes place, then the individual is allowed to be aggressive without breaking a social rule. The third possible result is the replacement of a hysterical symptom to a new one.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In conclusion, Freud stated that there was a constant interaction between the id, the ego, and the superego. The outcomes produced by the dynamics of the mind are usually unconscious and aid in relieving tension. These mental products include dreams, transference, slips of the tongue, forgetting, mispronouncing, misplacing, and hysterical symptoms. Nevertheless, the latter can be removed and the rest understood through psychoanalytic therapy.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 32px;"><span style="font-size: large;">References<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Burnham, J. C. (2012). <i>After Freud left: A century of psychoanalysis in America</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Felluga, Dino. (n. d.). "Modules on Freud: Transference and Trauma ." Introductory Guide to Critical Theory. Purdue U. Retrieved April 27, 2016, from <http://www.purdue.edu/guidetotheory/psychoanalysis/freud5.html>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Freud, S. (1938). <i>An Outline of Psychoanalysis</i>. New York: W.W. Norton.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Freud, S. (1909). <i>Five lectures on psychoanalysis</i>. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Freud, S. (1905a). <i>Jokes and their relation to the unconscious</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Freud, S. (1900). <i>The Interpretation of Dreams</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Freud, S. (1904). <i>The Psychopathology of Everyday life</i>. New York: Norton.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Freud, S. (1905b). <i>Three contributions to the theory of sex</i>. New York: Dutton.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Gray, R. (n.d.). Freud, "Aetiology of Hysteria" Retrieved April 27, 2016, from http://courses.washington.edu/freudlit/Hysteria.Notes.html<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Jay, M. E. (2016). Sigmund Freud. Retrieved April 27, 2016, from http://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Lapsley, D. K. (2011). Id, Ego, and Superego. Retrieved April 27, 2016, from http://www3.nd.edu/~dlapsle1/Lab/Articles & Chapters_files/Entry for Encyclopedia of Human Behavior(finalized4 Formatted).pdf<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Rana, H. (1997). Sigmund Freud. Retrieved April 27, 2016, from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/freud.htm<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Solms, M. (2013). The Conscious Id. Neuropsychoanalysis, 15(1), 5-19. doi:10.1080/15294145.2013.10773711</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (2016). Condensation. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from http://www.britannica.com/topic/condensation-psychology<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (2016). Displacement. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from http://www.britannica.com/topic/displacement-psychology<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (2016). G. Stanley Hall. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from http://www.britannica.com/biography/G-Stanley-Hall </span></span></div>
Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7207490021610970622.post-22062188837117339022016-04-21T20:26:00.002-07:002019-02-24T10:59:55.031-08:00Introduction to Psychobiology Part 4 (Psychopharmacology/Drugs)<h2>
Psychopharmacology</h2>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">For more information about biopsychology, please check out "Physiology of Behavior" by Neil Carson.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Drugs. Today we are going to talk about drugs. Psychopharmacology is the study of drugs (now it sounds redundant). We are going to explore how they affect mental processes and behavior.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.confer.uk.com/images/events/pharmacology.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.confer.uk.com/images/events/pharmacology.jpg" /></a>Let's start with the basics: what is a drug? Neil Carson, the author of "Physiology of Behavior" defines a drug as "an exogenous chemical not necessary on normal cellular functioning that significantly alter the functions of certain cells of the body when taken in relatively low doses (1)." Or in simpler terms a chemical that changes the normal functions of the body. We'll tackle this definition one step at a time. Exogenous means outside an organism (2). This makes a reference that there are chemicals inside the body that alters normal somatic functions, but the definition of drugs only focuses on the external ones. We use the term drug effects when referring to these changes caused by drugs. The places where the chemicals attach in order for these changes to occur are called sites of action. The phrase "functions of certain cells of the body" is stated to explain that the focus is, obviously, biological in nature. Finally, the last part, the one about low doses, makes a reference of how almost any substance that is taken in large doses affects the normal cellular process.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG" width="320" /></a>By using this definition we can state that coffee is a drug because it has caffeine, which is an exogenous (remember that this means that it comes from the outside of our body) chemical, and when taken in small doses it changes the normal functions of our body by giving us energy and other things. People usually have the idea that drugs are illegal and negative things that only criminals do. Do you remember the phrase "Say no to drugs?" Well, drug effects are also used to help people in the form of medicine. Remember that the stores that sell medication are called drug stores. So, our focus will not deal with the morality of using drugs, but rather with descriptive, non-normative details that surround them.</span><br />
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Where can drugs be administered?</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.clodrosome.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Intraperitoneal-Injection_blank.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.clodrosome.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Intraperitoneal-Injection_blank.jpg" height="224" width="320" /></a>We'll cover five types of ways drugs can be administered. The first one is by means of injection. Moreover, there are several types of injections, one of them is intravenous (IV) injection. This one goes right in to the bloodstream so the drug effects are instantaneous (3). The peritoneal injection, which is administered in the peritoneal cavity (duh!). This is a semipermeable wall in the abdomen (4). The next injection is intramuscular, which is delivered into the muscles and the last one is the subcutaneous injection, which is delivered under the skin (5). The cartoon to the right depicts a peritoneal injection.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://nootriment.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/noopept-sublingual.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://nootriment.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/noopept-sublingual.jpg" /></a>The second route to administer a drug is by oral administration. Researchers don't usually use this method for two reasons. The first one is that if the experimenter is dealing with animals, they (the animals, not the researchers) might not want to consume the drug because of its flavor. The other reason is that the chemical can be destroyed by a stomach acid (1). Nevertheless, this method can be used with humans if it is administered with a sublingual method (This means placed under the tongue). In this way, the drug enters the bloodstream, thus, not being affected by the stomach acid.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.atitesting.com/ati_next_gen/skillsmodules/content/Medication-Administration-2/images/Meds2_rectal_graphic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.atitesting.com/ati_next_gen/skillsmodules/content/Medication-Administration-2/images/Meds2_rectal_graphic.jpg" height="176" width="200" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The third method is called intrarectal and it is administered through the anus (6). I hope you can understand why I didn't put a real photo here. It is important to note that because of they way it is introduced into the body, many researchers opt out of his method. Nevertheless, it is commonly used with humans.</span><br />
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<a href="http://www.healthcareglobal.com/public/uploads/large/large_article_im909_Acton_Pharma_gets_USFDA_approval_for_an_inhaled_st.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a><a href="http://www.healthcareglobal.com/public/uploads/large/large_article_im909_Acton_Pharma_gets_USFDA_approval_for_an_inhaled_st.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a><br />
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<a href="http://www.healthcareglobal.com/public/uploads/large/large_article_im909_Acton_Pharma_gets_USFDA_approval_for_an_inhaled_st.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.healthcareglobal.com/public/uploads/large/large_article_im909_Acton_Pharma_gets_USFDA_approval_for_an_inhaled_st.jpg" height="175" width="320" /></a><br />
Inhalation is the fourth method. Drugs like marijuana and nicotine are usually smoked (1). This method is efficient in the sense that a lesser dose is needed for the same effect when compared to the other methods such as oral administration (7). The last method is called topical. This is applied to surfaces of the body such as the skin (8). Maybe you have seen this in the form of nicotine patches.<br />
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Finally I want to leave you a link of an artist who drew 30 portraits of himself after consuming thirty types of drugs: http://bryanlewissaunders.org/drugs/<br />
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Feel free to leave comments, questions, concerns, or suggestions. Thanks for reading!<br />
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References</div>
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1. "Physiology of Behavior" by Neil Carson<br />
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2. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/exogenous</div>
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3. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002383.htm<br />
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4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189662/<br />
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5.http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/subcutaneous<br />
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6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6126289<br />
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7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15737247<br />
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8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68000287</div>
</span>Ivan Herrejonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08363215769952074507noreply@blogger.com0